• Source: Choctaw language

The Choctaw language (Choctaw: Chahta anumpa), spoken by the Choctaw, an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, US, is a member of the Muskogean language family. Chickasaw is a separate but closely related language to Choctaw.
The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma published the New Choctaw dictionary in 2016.




Dialects


There are three dialects of Choctaw (Mithun 1999):

"Native" Choctaw on the Choctaw Nation in southeastern Oklahoma
Mississippi Choctaw of Oklahoma on Chickasaw Nation of south-central Oklahoma (near Durwood)
Choctaw of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians near Philadelphia, Mississippi
Other speakers live near Tallahassee, Florida, and with the Koasati in Louisiana, and also a few speakers live in Texas and California.




Phonology


More information on suffixes is in the Morphology section.




= Consonants

=

^ The only voiced stop is /b/. The voiceless stops /p/, /t/, and /k/ may become partially voiced between vowels, especially /k/ and for male speakers. Also, the voiceless stops are slightly aspirated at the onset of words and before stressed syllables, behaving like English voiceless plosives.
^ Controversially, some analyses suggest that all nouns end in an underlying consonant phoneme. Nouns apparently ending in a vowel actually have a glottal stop /ʔ/ or a glottal fricative /h/ as the final consonant. Such consonants become realized when suffixes are attached.
^ The distinction between phonemes /s/ and /ʃ/ is neutralized at the end of words.



Free variation

There is free variation of some consonants in Choctaw with some speakers:
/ɬ/, the voiceless lateral fricative, is pronounced as a voiceless dental fricative [θ]: /ɬ/→[θ].
The voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ is pronounced as a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ]: /f/→[ɸ].



Phonological processes of consonants

In Choctaw /k/, the voiceless velar plosive, is often pronounced as [ɣ], a voiced velar fricative, between vowels.
/k/→[ɣ]/V_V
imofi-aki-lih→imofiy-əɣə̃꞉-lih
The voiceless glottal fricative /h/ is often pronounced like a voiceless palatal fricative [ç] when it precedes the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate /tʃ/.
/h/→[ç]/_tʃ
katihchish→katiçtʃiʃ




= Vowels

=

^ Lax vowels occur more often in closed syllables. In traditional orthography, ʋ usually indicates [ə] and u usually indicates [ʊ]. Exceptions include pokoli (traditional) for /pʊk.koli/, imalakusi for /imaːlakosi/. The traditional orthography does not distinguish lax and tense front vowels; instead it indicates /iː/ with e.
^ Nasal vowels are intrinsically long.



Pitch

In Choctaw, very few words are distinguished only by pitch accent. Nouns in Choctaw have pitch realization at the penultimate syllable or the ultimate syllable. Verbs in Choctaw will have pitch realization at morphemes indicating tense, but sometimes, pitch directly precedes the tense morpheme.




= Syllable structure

=

As is in the chart above, there are three syllable structure types in Choctaw: light, heavy, and super heavy. Possible syllables in Choctaw must contain at least one vowel of any quality.
Syllables cannot end with a consonant clusters CC. However, there is an exception with the structure *(C)VCC if a word in Choctaw ends with the suffix /-t/.
Syllables do not begin with consonant clusters CC, but there is an exception in an initial /i-/ deletion, which results in a syllable *CCV .



Rhythmic lengthening

Rhythmic lengthening is the process of lengthening the vowel duration of an even-numbered CV syllable in Choctaw. However, vowels at the end of words are not permitted to undergo that process. Also, if an even-numbered syllable is a verbal prefixes class I or III, the affix's vowel may not undergo lengthening, and the same holds true for noun prefixes class III as well.
CV-CV-CVC→CV-CV꞉-CVC
salahatok→sala꞉hatok



Smallest possible word

The smallest possible word in Choctaw must contain either two short vowels or one long vowel.
a꞉t
/a-/ insertion: there are verbs with only one short vowel in their roots. Without an affix attached to the verb root, the verbs become impossible utterances because Choctaw requires either two short vowels or a long vowel for a word to be formed. An initial A-prefix is thus attached to the root of the verb.
*bih → a-bih




= Phonological processes

=



Glide insertion

When a verb root ends with a long vowel, a glide /w/ or /j/ is inserted after the long vowel.
∅→/wa/ / V꞉____
Where V꞉ is oo
boo-a-h→bóowah
∅→/ja/ / V꞉____
Where V꞉ can be either ii or aa
talaa-a-h→talaayah



/i-/ deletion

In Choctaw, there is a group of nouns which contain an initial /i-/ that encodes for 3rd person possession. It may be deleted, but if the /i/ is part of a VC syllable structure, the C is also deleted, because the resulting CCV syllable is rarely a permissible syllable structure at the onset of words.
/i/→∅ / #____
Part 1: /i + C/→∅ + /C/ / #____
Part 2: /∅ + C/→∅ / #____
ippókni'→ppókni'→pókni'



/-l-/ infix assimilation

The verbal infix /l/ is pronounced /h, ch, or ɬ/ when /l/ precedes a voiceless consonant.
l → {h, tʃ, ɬ} /_C[-voice]
ho-l-tinah → ho-ɬ-tinah



Phonological processes of the suffix /-li/

There are several assimilation processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. When the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by /f/ /ɫ/ /h/ /m/ /n/ or /w/, the /l/ assimilates to the corresponding consonant that precedes it. Also, the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /b/, the /l/ is realized as /b/. Third, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /p/, the /p/ is pronounced as /b/. Lastly, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /t/, the /t/ is pronounced as /l/.
/l/→/f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/ / /f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/____
/kobaf-li-h/→ kobaaffih
/l/→/b/ / /b/____
/atob-li-h/→ atobbih
/p/→/b/ / ____/l/
/tap-li-h/→ tablih
/t/→/l/ / ____/l/
/palhat-li-h/→ pallalih
There are two deletion processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. If the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the verbal suffix /-tʃi/, the suffix /-li/ may be deleted if the resulting syllable, after deletion, is a consonant cluster. The other process occurs when the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the suffix /-t/, which results with the suffix /-li/ being sometimes deleted if the syllable /-li/ has not already gone under phonological processes as described above.
/li/→∅ / ____/tʃi/
balii-li-chi-h→balii-chi-h
/li/→∅ / ____/t/
balii-li--h→balii-t



Schwa insertion

Schwa insertion: when a glottal fricative /h/ or a velar stop /k/ precedes a voiced consonant within a consonant cluster, a schwa /ə/ is inserted to break up the consonant cluster.
∅→/ə/ / /h/____[+voiced] consonant
∅→/ə/ / /k/____[+voiced] consonant
'ahnih'→/ahənih/



Vowel deletion

Vowel deletion is the process of a short vowel being deleted at a morpheme boundary. It occurs when an affix containing a short vowel at the morpheme boundary binds to a word that also contains a short vowel at the morpheme boundary.
For most vowel deletion cases, the preceding short vowel is deleted at the morpheme boundary.
V→∅ / ____V
/baliili-aatʃĩ-h/→baliilaatʃĩh
If a class II suffix attaches to a word that results with two short vowels occurring together, the short vowel that follows the class II suffix is deleted.
V→∅ / V____
/sa-ibaa-waʃoohah/→sabaa-waʃoohah




Morphology and grammar






= Verbal morphology

=
Choctaw verbs display a wide range of inflectional and derivational morphology. In Choctaw, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English. Verbs may be preceded by up to three prefixes and followed by as many as five suffixes. In addition, verb roots may contain infixes that convey aspectual information.



Verb prefixes

The verbal prefixes convey information about the arguments of the verb: how many there are and their person and number features. The prefixes can be divided into three sorts: agreement markers, applicative markers, and anaphors (reflexives and reciprocals). The prefixes occur in the following order: agreement-anaphor-applicative-verb stem.



= Agreement affixes
=
The agreement affixes are shown in the following chart. The only suffix among the personal agreement markers is the first-person singular class I agreement marker /-li/. Third-person is completely unmarked for class I and class II agreement arguments and never indicates number.

Some authors (Ulrich 1986, Davies, 1986) refer to class I as actor or nominative, class II as patient or accusative and class III as dative. Broadwell prefers the neutral numbered labels because the actual use of the affixes is more complex. This type of morphology is generally referred to as active–stative and polypersonal agreement.
Class I affixes always indicate the subject of the verb. Class II prefixes usually indicate direct object of active verbs and the subject of stative verbs. Class III prefixes indicate the indirect object of active verbs. A small set of stative psychological verbs have class III subjects; an even smaller set of stative verbs dealing primarily with affect, communication and intimacy have class III direct objects.




Active verbs


As the chart above shows, there is no person-number agreement for third person arguments. Consider the following paradigms:

^ When the subject and object refer to the same thing or person (coreference), the reflexive ili- prefix is mandatory and used in place of the coreferent object.
Transitive active verbs seemingly with class III direct objects:

Am-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told me.'
Chim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told you.'
Im-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told him/her/it/them.'
Pim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told us.'
Hachim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told y'all.'
When a transitive verb occurs with more than one agreement prefix, I prefixes precede II and III prefixes:

For intransitive verbs, the subjects of active verbs typically have class I agreement. Because third-person objects are unmarked, intransitive active verbs are indistinguishable in form from transitive active verbs with a third-person direct object.




Stative verbs



The subjects of stative verbs typically have II agreement. A small set of psychological verbs have subjects with class III agreement.



= Negatives
=
The set of agreement markers labelled N above is used with negatives. Negation is multiply marked, requiring that an agreement marker from the N set replace the ordinary I agreement, the verb appear in the lengthened grade (see discussion below), and that the suffix /-o(k)-/ follow the verb, with deletion of the preceding final vowel. The optional suffix /-kii/ may be added after /-o(k)-/. Consider the following example:

Compare this with the affirmative counterpart:

To make this example negative, the 1sI suffix /-li/ is replaced by the 1sN prefix /ak-/; the verb root iya is lengthened and accented to yield íiya; the suffix /-o/ is added, the final vowel of iiya is deleted, and the suffix /-kii/ is added.



= Anaphoric prefixes
=
Reflexives are indicated with the /ili-/ prefix, and reciprocals with /itti-/:



Verb suffixes

While the verbal prefixes indicate relations between the verb and its arguments, the suffixes cover a wider semantic range, including information about valence, modality, tense and evidentiality.
The following examples show modal and tense suffixes like /-aachii̱/ 'irrealis'(approximately equal to future), /-tok/ 'past tense', /-h/ 'default tenses':

There are also suffixes that show evidentiality, or the source of evidence for a statement, as in the following pair:

There are also suffixes of illocutionary force which may indicate that the sentence is a question, an exclamation, or a command:



Verbal infixes

Choctaw verb stems have various infixes that indicate their aspect. These stem variants are traditionally referred to as 'grades'. The table below shows the grades of Choctaw, along with their main usage.

Some examples that show the grades follow:
In this example the l-grade appears because of the suffixes /-na/ 'different subject' and /-o(k)/ 'negative':

The g-grade and y-grade typically get translated into English as "finally VERB-ed":

The hn-grade is usually translated as 'kept on VERBing':

The h-grade is usually translated "just VERB-ed" or "VERB-ed for a short time":




= Nominal morphology

=



Noun prefixes

Nouns have prefixes that show agreement with a possessor. Agreement markers from class II are used on a lexically specified closed class of nouns, which includes many (but not all) of the kinship terms and body parts. This is the class that is generally labeled inalienable.

Nouns that are not lexically specified for II agreement use the III agreement markers:

Although systems of this type are generally described with the terms alienable and inalienable, this terminology is not particularly appropriate for Choctaw, since alienability implies a semantic distinction between types of nouns. The morphological distinction between nouns taking II agreement and III agreement in Choctaw only partly coincides with the semantic notion of alienability.



Noun suffixes

Choctaw nouns can be followed by various determiner and case-marking suffixes, as in the following examples, where we see
determiners such as /-ma/ 'that', /-pa/ 'this', and /-akoo/ 'contrast' and case-markers /-(y)at/ 'nominative' and /-(y)a̱/ 'accusative':

The last example shows that nasalizing the last vowel of the preceding N is a common way to show the accusative case.




= Word order and case marking

=
The simplest sentences in Choctaw consist of a verb and a tense marker, as in the following examples:

As these examples show, there are no obligatory noun phrases in a Choctaw sentence, nor is there any verbal agreement that indicates a third person subject or object. There is no indication of grammatical gender, and for third person arguments there is no indication of number. (There are, however, some verbs with suppletive forms that indicate the number of a subject or object, e.g. iyah 'to go (sg.)', ittiyaachih 'to go (du.)', and ilhkolih 'to go (pl)'.)
When there is an overt subject, it is obligatorily marked with the nominative case /-at/. Subjects precede the verb

When there is an overt object, it is optionally marked with the accusative case /-a̱/

The Choctaw sentence is normally verb-final, and so the head of the sentence is last.
Some other phrases in Choctaw also have their head at the end. Possessors precede the possessed noun in the Noun Phrase:

Choctaw has postpositional phrases with the postposition after its object:




Orthography



The written Choctaw language is based upon the English version of the Roman alphabet and was developed in conjunction with the "civilization program" of the United States, a program to westernize and forcefully assimilate Indigenous Americans, particularly those adhering to what were to become the Five Civilized Tribes (of which the Choctaw are a part) into Anglo-American Culture and Sympathies during the early 19th century. Although there are other variations of the Choctaw alphabet, the three most commonly seen are the Byington (Traditional), Byington/Swanton (Linguistic), and Modern (Mississippi Choctaw).
Many publications by linguists about the Choctaw language use a slight variant of the "modern (Mississippi Choctaw)" orthography listed here, where long vowels are written as doubled. In the "linguistic" version, the acute accent shows the position of the pitch accent, rather than the length of the vowel.
The discussion of Choctaw grammar below uses the linguistic variant of the orthography.

^ Choctaw Bible Translation Committee
^ Substituted with 'v' according to typesetting or encoding constraints.
^ The former is used before a vowel; the latter, before a consonant. The intervocalic use of ⟨hl⟩ conflated the common consonant cluster /hl/ with /ɬ/.
^ Dictionary editors John Swanton and Henry Halbert systematically replaced all instances of ⟨hl⟩ with ⟨ł⟩, regardless whether ⟨hl⟩ stood for /ɬ/ or /hl/. Despite the editors' systematic replacement of all ⟨hl⟩ with ⟨ł⟩, the digraph ⟨lh⟩ was allowed to stand.




Examples


Some common Choctaw phrases (written in the "Modern" orthography):

Choctaw: Chahta
hi: Halito!
See you later!: Chi pisa la chike!
number: holhtina/holhtini
Thank you: Yakóki
What is your name?: Chi hohchifo yat nanta?
My name is...: Sa hohchifo yat...
yes: a̱
no: kíyo
okay: ohmi
I don't understand.: Ak akostiníncho.
I don't know.: Ak ikháno.
Do you speak Choctaw?: Chahta imanompa ish anompola hinla ho̱?
What is that?: Yammat nanta?
Other Choctaw words:

Cherokee: Chalaki
Chickasaw: Chickashsha
Seminole: Siminóli
Creek/Muskogee: Maskóki
today: himak nittak
tonight: himak ninak
tomorrow: onnakma
yesterday: piláshásh
month: hashi
year/2009: affami/talhípa sippokni toklo akochcha chakkali
house: chokka
school: holisso ápisa
cat: katos
dog: ofi
cow: wák
horse: issoba/soba
Counting to twenty:

one: achaffa
two: toklo
three: tochchína
four: oshta
five: talhlhapi
six: hannali
seven: o̱toklo
eight: o̱tochchina
nine: chakkali
ten: pokkoli
eleven: awahachaffa
twelve: awahtoklo
thirteen: awahtochchina
fourteen: awahoshta
fifteen: awahtalhlhapi
sixteen: awahhannali
seventeen: awaho̱toklo
eighteen: awaho̱tohchínah
nineteen: abichakkali
twenty: pokkoli toklo
At "Native Nashville" web [5], there is an Online Choctaw Language Tutor, with Pronunciation Guide and four lessons: Small Talk, Animals, Food and Numbers.




See also


Choctaw Code Talkers
List of placenames of Choctaw origin




References






Sources


Broadwell, George Aaron. (2006). A Choctaw Reference Grammar. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-1315-8.




Further reading


Broadwell, George Aaron (1991). "Speaker and self in Choctaw". International Journal of American Linguistics. 57 (4): 411–425. doi:10.1086/ijal.57.4.3519733. S2CID 152104893.
Byington, Cyrus (1915). Swanton, J. R.; Halbert, H. S. (eds.). A dictionary of the Choctaw language. Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin. Vol. 46. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted 1973 & 1978). iarchive:choctawlanguag00byinrich, si.edu.
Davies, William (1986). Choctaw verb agreement and universal grammar. Reidel.
Downing, Todd (1974). Chahta anompa: An introduction to the Choctaw language (3rd ed.). Durant, OK: Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
Haag, Marcia; Willis, Henry (2001). Choctaw Language & Culture: Chahta Anumpa. University of Oklahoma Press.
Haag, Marcia; Fowler, Loretta (2001). Chahta Anumpa: A Choctaw Tutorial CD-ROM. University of Oklahoma Press.
Heath, Jeffrey (1977). "Choctaw cases". Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistic Society. 3: 204–213. doi:10.3765/bls.v3i0.3289.
Heath, Jeffrey (1980). "Choctaw suppletive verbs and derivational morphology". Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics. 5: 1–24. doi:10.17161/KWPL.1808.542. hdl:1808/542.
Howard, Gregg; Eby, Richard; Jones, Charles G. (1991). Introduction to Choctaw: A primer for learning to speak, read and write the Choctaw language. Fayetteville, AR: VIP Publishers.
Jacob, Betty (1980). "Choctaw and Chickasaw". International Journal of American Linguistics. 46 (1). doi:10.1086/465629. JSTOR 1264448. S2CID 224808522.
Jacob, Betty; Nicklas, Thurston Dale; Spencer, Betty Lou (1977). Introduction to Choctaw. Durant, OK: Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
Mithun, Marianne (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7.
Munro, Pamela (1987). "Some morphological differences between Chickasaw and Choctaw". In Munro, Pamela (ed.). Muskogean linguistics. Los Angeles: University of California. pp. 119–133.
Nicklas, Thurston Dale (1974). The elements of Choctaw (PhD dissertation). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Nicklas, Thurston Dale (1975). "Choctaw morphophonemics". In Crawford, J. (ed.). Studies in southeastern Indian languages. Athens: University of Georgia. pp. 237–249.
Nicklas, Thurston Dale (1979). Reference grammar of the Choctaw language. Durant, OK: Choctaw Bilingual Education Program, Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
Pulte, William (1975). "The position of Chickasaw in Western Muskogean". In Crawford, J. (ed.). Studies in southeastern Indian languages. Athens: University of Georgia. pp. 251–263.
Ulrich, Charles H. (1986). Choctaw morphophonology (PhD dissertation). Los Angeles: University of California.
Ulrich, Charles H. (1987). "Choctaw g-grades and y-grades". In Munro, Pamela (ed.). Muskogean linguistics. Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles, Department of Linguistics. pp. 171–178.
Ulrich, Charles H. (1987). "Choctaw verb grades and the nature of syllabification". In Bosch, A.; Need, B.; Schiller, E. (eds.). Papers from the 23rd annual regional meeting. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
Ulrich, Charles H. (1988). "The morphophonology of Choctaw verb roots and valence suffixes". In Shipley, W. (ed.). In honor of Mary Haas: From the Haas Festival conference on Native American linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 805–818.




External links



Cyrus Byington (1870) Grammar of the Choctaw Language, American Philosophical Society
Cyrus Byington (1852) "English and Choctaw Definer"
Choctaw Dictionary
Allen Wright (1880) Chahta leksikon
Ben Watkins (1892) Complete Choctaw definer
Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians
Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma
Broadwell, Grammatical Sketch of Choctaw
https://choctawschool.com/media/369055/New%20Choctaw%20Dictionary.pdf

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