• Source: List of solar storms

Solar storms of different types are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often from coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares from active regions, or, less often, from coronal holes. Minor to active solar storms (i.e. storming restricted to higher latitudes) may occur under elevated background solar wind conditions when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation is southward, toward the Earth (which also leads to much stronger storming conditions from CME-related sources).




Background



Active stars produce disturbances in space weather and, if strong enough, in their own space climate. Science studies such phenomena with the field of heliophysics, which is an interdisciplinary combination of solar physics and planetary science.
In the Solar System, the Sun can produce intense geomagnetic and energetic particle storms capable of causing severe damage to technology. It can result in large scale power outages, disruption or blackouts of radio communications (including GPS), damage or destruction of submarine communications cables, and temporary to permanent disabling of satellites and other electronics. Intense solar storms may also be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation and to human spaceflight. Geomagnetic storms are the cause of aurora. The most significant known solar storm, across the most parameters, occurred in September 1859 and is known as the "Carrington event". The damage from the most potent solar storms is capable of existentially threatening the stability of modern human civilization, although proper preparedness and mitigation can substantially reduce the hazards.
Proxy data from Earth, as well as analysis of stars similar to the Sun, suggest that the Sun may be also capable of producing so-called "superflares", which are as much as 1,000 times stronger than any flares in the historical record. Other research, like models of solar flares and statistics of extreme solar events reconstructed using cosmogenic isotope data in terrestrial archives, indicate otherwise. The discrepancy is not yet resolved and may be related to a biased statistic of the stellar population of solar analogs.




Coronal mass ejections and solar particle events






= Events affecting Earth

=



Proxy evidence

This section contains a list of possible events that are indicated by indirect, or proxy data. The scientific value of such data remains unresolved.

12400–12399 BCE Probable Miyake event, which would be the largest known and twice the 774–775 event.
7176 BCE Found in beryllium-10 (and other isotopes) spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. It unexpectedly appears to have occurred near a Solar minimum and was as strong as, or probably even slightly stronger than the famous 774–775 CE event.
c. 5410 BCE
5259 BCE Found in beryllium-10 spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. At least as strong as the 774–775 event.
c. 660 BCE
774–775 CE This extreme solar proton event is the first identified Miyake event. It caused the largest and most rapid rise in carbon-14 levels ever recorded.
993–994 CE It caused a carbon-14 spike visible in tree rings which was used to date Viking archaeological remains in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland to 1021.
1052 CE found in carbon-14 spike
1279 CE found in carbon-14 spike



Direct measurements and/or visual observations





= Events not affecting Earth

=
The above events affected Earth (and its vicinity, known as the magnetosphere), whereas the following events were directed elsewhere in the Solar System and were detected by monitoring spacecraft or other means.




Soft X-ray solar flares



Solar flares are intense localized eruptions of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. They are often classified based on the peak flux of soft X-rays (SXR) measured by the GOES spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit (see Solar flare § Soft X-ray classification).
The following table lists the largest flares in this respect since June 1996, the beginning of solar cycle 23.




See also






References






Further reading


Cliver, E.W.; L. Svalgaard (2004). "The 1859 Solar–Terrestrial Disturbance and the Current Limits of Extreme Space Weather Activity" (PDF). Solar Physics. 224 (1–2): 407–22. Bibcode:2004SoPh..224..407C. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-4980-z. S2CID 120093108. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2014-05-07.




External links


The Most Powerful Solar Flares Ever Recorded (NASA's SpaceWeather.com)
Solar Proton Events Affecting the Earth Environment (1976 - present) (SWPC)
Archive of the most severe solar storms (Solarstorms.org)
GOES X-ray Solar Imager Greatest Hits
Riley, Pete; J. J. Love (2017). "Extreme geomagnetic storms: Probabilistic forecasts and their uncertainties". Space Weather. 15 (1): 53–64. Bibcode:2017SpWea..15...53R. doi:10.1002/2016SW001470. S2CID 125660629.
Riley, Pete (2012). "On the probability of occurrence of extreme space weather events". Space Weather. 10 (2): S02012. Bibcode:2012SpWea..10.2012R. doi:10.1029/2011SW000734. S2CID 17729668.
Love, Jeffrey J. (2021). "Extreme-event magnetic storm probabilities derived from rank statistics of historical Dst intensities for solar cycles 14-24". Space Weather. 19 (4). Bibcode:2021SpWea..1902579L. doi:10.1029/2020SW002579.

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