- Source: Outline of geography
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography:
Geography – study of Earth and its people.
Nature of geography
= Geography as
=an academic discipline – a body of knowledge given to − or received by − a disciple (student); a branch or sphere of knowledge, or field of study, that an individual has chosen to specialize in. Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the Earth and its human and natural complexities − not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called 'the world discipline'.
a field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. This field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are many geography-related scientific journals.
a natural science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of the natural environment (physical geography).
a social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society (human geography).
an interdisciplinary field – a field that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have emerged. Many of the branches of physical geography are also branches of Earth science
Branches of geography
As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches:
human geography
physical geography
Other branches include:
integrated geography
technical geography
regional geography
= Physical geography
=Physical geography – examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, water, and landforms are produced and interact.
Fields of physical geography
Geomorphology – study of landforms and the processes that them, and more broadly, of the processes controlling the topography of any planet. It seeks to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through field observation, physical experiments, and numerical modeling.
Hydrology – study water movement, distribution, and quality throughout the Earth, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability.
Glaciology – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.
Oceanography – studies a wide range of topics about oceans, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries.
Biogeography – study of species distribution spatially and temporally. Over areal ecological changes, it is also tied to the concepts of species and their past, or present living 'refugium', their survival locales, or their interim living sites. It aims to reveal where organisms live and at what abundance.
Climatology – study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time.
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short-term forecasting (in contrast with climatology).
Pedology – study of soils in their natural environment that deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, and soil classification.
Palaeogeography – study of what geography was in times past, most often concerning the physical landscape and the human or cultural environment.
Coastal geography – study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e., coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. It involves understanding coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement, and weather, as well as how humans interact with the coast.
Quaternary science – focuses on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years, including the last ice age and the Holocene period.
Landscape ecology – the relationship between spatial patterns of urban development and ecological processes on many landscape scales and organizational levels.
Approaches of physical geography
Quantitative geography – Quantitative research tools and methods applied to geography. See also the quantitative revolution.
Systems approach –
= Human geography
=Human geography – one of the two main subfields of geography is the study of human use and understanding of the world and the processes that have affected it. Human geography broadly differs from physical geography in that it focuses on the built environment and how space is created, viewed, and managed by humans, as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy.
Fields of human geography
Cultural geography – study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially.
Children's geographies – study of places and spaces of children's lives, characterized experientially, politically and ethically. Children's geographies rest on the idea that children as a social group share certain characteristics that are experientially, politically, and ethically significant and worthy of study. The pluralization in the title is intended to imply that children's lives will be markedly different in differing times and places and in differing circumstances such as gender, family, and class. The range of foci within children's geographies includes:
Children and the city
Children and the countryside
Children and technology
Children and nature,
Children and globalization
Methodologies of researching children's worlds
Ethics of researching children's worlds
Otherness of childhood
Animal geographies – studies the spaces and places occupied by animals in human culture because social life and space are heavily populated by animals of many different kinds and in many differing ways (e.g., farm animals, pets, wild animals in the city). Another impetus that has influenced the development of the field is ecofeminist and other environmentalist viewpoints on nature-society relations (including questions of animal welfare and rights).
Language geography – studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements. There are two principal fields of study within the geography of language:
Geography of languages – deals with the distribution through history and space of languages,
Linguistic geography – deals with regional linguistic variations within languages.
Sexuality and space – encompasses all relationships and interactions between human sexuality, space, and place, including the geographies of LGBT residence, public sex environments, sites of queer resistance, global sexualities, sex tourism, the geographies of prostitution and adult entertainment, use of sexualised locations in the arts, and sexual citizenship.
Religion geography – study of the influence of geography, i.e., place and space, on religious belief.
Development geography – study of the Earth's geography concerning its inhabitants' standard of living and quality of life. Measures development by looking at economic, political, and social factors and seeks to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development, in part by comparing More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) with Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs).
Economic geography – study of the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities worldwide. Subjects of interest include but are not limited to the location of industries, economies of agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade and development, real estate, gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying culture-environment interaction), and globalization.
Marketing geography – a discipline within marketing analysis that uses geolocation (geographic information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities. It can be used in any aspect of the marketing mix – the product, price, promotion, or place (geo-targeting).
Transportation geography – branch of economic geography that investigates spatial interactions between people, freight, and information. It studies humans and their use of vehicles or other modes of traveling and how flows of finished goods and raw materials service markets.
Health geography – application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care, to provide a spatial understanding of a population's health, the distribution of disease in an area, and the environment's effect on health and disease. It also deals with accessibility to health care and spatial distribution of health care providers.
Time geography – study of the temporal factor on spatial human activities within the following constraints:
Authority - limits of accessibility to certain places or domains placed on individuals by owners or authorities
Capability - limitations on the movement of individuals based on their nature. For example, movement is restricted by biological factors, such as the need for food, drink, and sleep
Coupling - restraint of an individual, anchoring him or her to a location while interacting with other individuals to complete a task
Historical geography – the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. It seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved by understanding how a place or region changes through time, including how people have interacted with their environment and created the cultural landscape.
Political geography – study of the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and how political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. The inter-relationships between people, state, and territory.
Electoral geography – study of the relationship between election results and the regions they affect (such as the environmental impact of voting decisions), and of the effects of regional factors upon voting behavior.
Geopolitics – analysis of geography, history, and social science concerning spatial politics and patterns at various scales, ranging from the level of the state to international.
Strategic geography – concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations.
Military geography – applying geographic tools, information, and techniques to solve military problems in peacetime or war.
Population geography – study of how spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places.
Tourism geography – study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity, and their effect on places, including the environmental impact of tourism, the geographies of tourism and leisure economies, answering tourism industry and management concerns and the sociology of tourism and locations of tourism.
Urban geography – the study of urban areas, in terms of concentration, infrastructure, economy, and environmental impacts.
Approaches of human geography
Behavioral geography – Approach to human geography that examines human behavior using a disaggregate approach
Cognitive geography – Interdisciplinary study of cognitive science and geography
Critical geography – Variant of social science that seeks to interpret and change the world
Feminist geography – Approach in human geography which applies the theories, methods and critiques of feminism
Marxist geography – Strand of critical geography
Non-representational theory – the study of a specific theory focused on human geographyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Postcolonialism – Study of the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism
Post-structuralism – Philosophical school and tradition –
Qualitative geography – qualitative research tools and methods applied to geography.
= Integrated geography
=Integrated geography – branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, ecology, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.
= Technical geography
=Technical geography – branch of geography and the discipline of studying, developing, and applying methods to gather, store, process, and deliver geographic or spatially referenced information. It is a widespread interdisciplinary field that includes the tools and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems, photogrammetry, and related forms of earth mapping.
Cyber geography – study of the physical network of broadband cables
Fields contributing to technical geography
Geomatics – Geographic data discipline
Photogrammetry – Taking measurements using photography
Cartography – Study and practice of making maps
Digital terrain modelling – 3D computer-generated imagery and measurements of terrainPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Geodesy – Science of measuring the shape, orientation, and gravity of Earth
Geographic information system – System to capture, manage, and present geographic data
Geospatial – Data and information having an implicit or explicit association with a locationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Global navigation satellite systems represented by Satellite navigation – Use of satellite signals for geo-spatial positioning – Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning
Global Positioning System – American satellite-based radio navigation service
Hydrography – Measurement of bodies of water
Mathematics – Area of knowledge
Navigation – Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another
Remote sensing – Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject
Surveying – Science of determining the positions of points and the distances and angles between them
= Regional geography
=Regional geography – study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as its natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions. Regional geography breaks down into the study of specific regions.
Region – an area, defined by physical characteristics, human characteristics, or functional characteristics. The term is used in various ways among the different branches of geography. A region can be seen as a collection of smaller units, such as a country and its political divisions, or as one part of a larger whole, as in a country on a continent.
Continents
Continent – one of several large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any specific criteria, but seven areas are commonly regarded as continents. They are:
1. Africa (outline) –
2. Antarctica –
3. Australia (outline) –
The Americas:
4. North America (outline) –
5. South America (outline) –
Eurasia:
6. Europe (outline) –
7. Asia (outline) –
= Subregions =
Subregion (list)
Biogeographic regions
= Biogeographic realm =
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a system of eight biogeographic realms (ecozones):
Nearctic 22.9 mil. km2 (including most of North America)
Palearctic 54.1 mil. km2 (including the bulk of Eurasia and North Africa)
Afrotropic 22.1 mil. km2 (including Sub-Saharan Africa)
Indomalaya 7.5 mil. km2 (including the South Asian subcontinent and Southeast Asia)
Australasia 7.7 mil. km2 (including Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring islands). The northern boundary of this zone is known as the Wallace line.
Neotropic 19.0 mil. km2 (including South America and the Caribbean)
Oceania 1.0 mil. km2 (including Polynesia, Fiji and Micronesia)
Antarctic 0.3 mil. km2 (including Antarctica).
= Ecoregions =
Ecoregion
Biogeographic realms are further divided into ecoregions. The World has over 800 terrestrial ecoregions. See Lists of ecoregions by country.
Geography of the political divisions of the World
Other regions
Atlantic World
Bermuda Triangle
Pacific Rim
Pacific Ring of Fire
History of geography
Topics pertaining to the geographical study of the World throughout history:
= By period
=Ancient roads
Ancient Greek geography
Age of Discovery
Major explorations after the Age of Discovery
Critical geography
Environmental determinism
= By region
=Chinese geography
History of human geography in China
= By subject
=Historical population of the world
By field
History of human geography
History of cartography – Evolution of the art and science of mapmaking
History of longitude – Record of humanity's attempts to find east-west position on Earth
Longitude Prize – 2014 British inducement prize contest
History of cultural geography
History of economic geography
History of health geography
History of political geography
History of demography
History of physical geography
History of biogeography
History of climatology
History of meteorology
History of geodesy
History of geomorphology
History of hydrology
History of oceanography
History of landscape ecology
History of regional geography
Elements of geography
Topics common to the various branches of geography include:
= Tasks and tools of geography
=Exploration – Process of investigating unfamiliar things
Geocode, also known as Geospatial Entity Object Code – Process of turning a place name/address to coordinatesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Geographic information system (GIS) – System to capture, manage, and present geographic data
Globe – Scale model of a celestial body
Map – Symbolic depiction of spatial relationships
Atlas – Collection of maps
Cartography – Study and practice of making maps
Outline of cartography – Overview of and topical guide to cartography
Map projection – Systematic representation of the surface of a sphere or ellipsoid onto a plane
Demographics – Science that deals with populations and their structures, statistically and theoreticallyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Spatial analysis – Formal techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties
Surveying – Science of determining the positions of points and the distances and angles between them
= Types of geographic features
=Geographic feature – component of a planet that can be referred to as a location, place, site, area, or region, and therefore may show up on a map. A geographic feature may be natural or artificial.
Location and place
Location –
Absolute location – Point or an area on Earth's surface or elsewherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Latitude – Geographic coordinate specifying north–south position
Prime meridian – Line of longitude, at which longitude is defined to be 0°
Longitude – Geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the Earth's surface
Equator – Imaginary line halfway between Earth's North and South poles
Tropic of Cancer – Line of northernmost latitude at which the Sun can be directly overhead
Tropic of Capricorn – Line of southernmost latitude at which the Sun can be directly overhead
Arctic Circle – Boundary of the Arctic
Antarctic Circle – Boundary of the Antarctic
North Pole – Northern point where the Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface
South Pole – Southernmost point on Earth
Altitude – Height in relation to a specified reference point
Elevation – Height of a geographic location above a fixed reference point
Place
Aspects of a place or region
Climate – Long-term weather pattern of a region
Population – All the organisms of a given species that live in a specified region
Demographics – Science that deals with populations and their structures, statistically and theoreticallyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Population density – Measurement of population per unit area or unit volume
Human overpopulation – Proposed condition wherein human numbers exceed the carrying capacity of the environment
World population – Total number of living humans on Earth
Sense of place – Term used in behavioral sciences and urban planning
Terrain – Dimension and shape of land surfaces
Topography – Study of the forms of land surfaces
Tourist attraction – Place of interest where tourists visit
Lists of places
Geography is a worldwide study
Natural geographic features
Natural geographic feature – an ecosystem or natural landform.
= Ecosystems =
Ecosystem – community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Biodiversity hotspot – Biodiverse region under threat
Realm – broadest biogeographic division of the Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms.
Ecoprovince – biogeographic unit smaller than a realm that contains one or more ecoregions.
Ecoregion – Ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion
Ecodistrict – Environmental planning
Ecosection – biogeographic unitPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Ecosite
Ecotope – Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and classification system
Ecoelement
Biome – Biogeographical unit with a particular biological community
Bioregion – Ecology terminology
Biotope – Habitat for communities made up of populations of multiple species
Bioelement
= Natural landforms =
Natural landform – terrain or body of water. Landforms are topographical elements, and are defined by their surface form and location in the landscape. Landforms are categorized by traits such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Some landforms are artificial, such as certain islands, but most landforms are natural.
Natural terrain feature types
Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention
Island – Piece of subcontinental land completely surrounded by water
Mainland – Continental part of any polity or the main island within an island nation
Mountain – Large natural elevation of the Earth's surface
Mountain range – Geographic area containing several geologically related mountains
Peninsula – Landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most sides.
Subcontinent – A large, relatively self-contained landmass forming a subdivision of a continent
Natural body of water types
Natural bodies of water – Any significant accumulation of water, generally on a planet's surface
Bodies of seawater – Water from a sea or an ocean
Channel – Narrow body of water
Firth – Scottish word used for various coastal inlets and straits
Harbor – Sheltered body of water where ships may shelter
Inlet – Indentation of a shoreline
Bay – Recessed, coastal body of water connected to an ocean or lake
Bight – Shallowly concave bend or curve in a coastline, river, or other geographical feature
Gulf – Large inlet from the ocean into the landmass
Cove – Small sheltered bay or coastal inlet
Creek (tidal) – Inlet or estuary that is affected by ebb and flow of ocean tidesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Estuary – Partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water
Fjord – Long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by glacial activity
Kettle – Depression or hole in an outwash plain formed by retreating glaciers or draining floodwaters
Kill – Creek, tidal inlet, river, strait, or arm of the sea
Lagoon – Shallow body of water separated from a larger one by a narrow landform
Barachois – Coastal lagoon partially or totally separated from the ocean by a sand or shingle bar
Loch – Irish and Scottish Gaelic word for a lake or sea inlet
Arm of the sea –
Mere – Shallow lake, pond, or wetland
Ocean – Body of salt water covering most of Earth
Phytotelma – Small water-filled cavity in a terrestrial plant
Salt marsh – Coastal ecosystem between land and open saltwater that is regularly flooded
Sea – Large body of salt water
Types of sea:
Mediterranean sea – Mostly enclosed sea with limited exchange with outer oceansPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Sound – A long, relatively wide body of water, connecting two larger bodies of water
Sea components or extensions:
Sea loch – Scottish Gaelic and Irish word for a sea inlet
Sea lough – Anglicised version of Scottish Gaelic and Irish word for a sea inlet
Strait – Naturally formed, narrow, typically navigable waterway that connects two larger bodies of water
Bodies of fresh water
Bayou – Body of water in flat, low-lying areas
Lake – Large inland body of relatively still water
Lists of lakes – List of lists of lakes
Oxbow lake – U-shaped lake or pool left by an ancient river meander
Subglacial lake – Lake under a glacier
Tarn – Mountain lake or pool in a glacial cirque
Pool – Deep and slow-moving stretch of a watercourse
Pond – Relatively small body of standing water
Billabong – Australian term for an oxbow lake or other waterhole
Tide pool – Rocky pool on a seashore, separated from the sea at low tide, filled with seawater
Vernal pool – Seasonal pools of water that provide habitat
Puddle – Small accumulation of liquid, usually water, on a surface
River – Natural flowing freshwater stream
Lists of rivers – A list of rivers, organised geographically
Parts of a river:
Rapids – River section with increased velocity and turbulence
Source – Starting point of a riverPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Waterfall – A point in a river or stream where water flows over a vertical drop
List of waterfalls – List of notable waterfalls of the world
Roadstead – Open anchorage affording some protection, but less than a harbor
Spring – A point at which water emenges from an aquifer to the surface
Boil -
Stream – Body of surface water flowing down a channel
Beck – Body of surface water flowing down a channel
Brook – Body of surface water flowing down a channel
Burn – Term of Scottish origin for a small river
Creek – Body of surface water flowing down a channel
Arroyo (watercourse) – Dry watercourse with flow after rain
Wash – Dry watercourse with flow after rain
Draw – Dry watercourse with flow after rain
Run – Body of surface water flowing down a channel
Wetland – Type of land area that is flooded or saturated with water
Freshwater marsh – Low-lying and seasonally waterlogged land
Slough (wetland) – A forested wetland
Mangrove swamp – Shrub growing in brackish water
Artificial geographic features
Artificial geographic feature – a thing that was made by humans that may be indicated on a map. It may be physical and exist in the real world (like a bridge or city), or it may be abstract and exist only on maps (such as the Equator, which has a defined location, but cannot be seen where it lies).
Settlement – Community of any size, in which people live
Rural area – Geographic area outside towns and cities
Hamlet (place) – Small human settlement in a rural area – rural settlement which is too small to be considered a village. Historically, when a hamlet became large enough to justify building a church, it was then classified as a village. One example of a hamlet is a small cluster of houses surrounding a mill.
Village – Human settlement smaller than a town – clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with the population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand (sometimes tens of thousands).
Town – Type of human settlement – human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size a settlement must be in order to be called a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world, so that, for example, many American "small towns" seem to British people to be no more than villages, while many British "small towns" would qualify as cities in the United States.
Urban hierarchy – Rank of cities based on their population – ranks the structure of towns within an area.
1st-order towns – bare minimum of essential services, such as bread and milk.
2nd-order towns
3rd-order towns
4th-order towns
City – Large permanent human settlement – relatively large and permanent settlement. In many regions, a city is distinguished from a town by attainment of designation according to law, for instance being required to obtain articles of incorporation or a royal charter.
Financial centre – Locations which are centres of financial activity
Primate city – Disproportionately largest city of a country or region – the leading city in its country or region, disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy.
Metropolis – Large city or conurbation – very large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections and communications.
Metropolitan area – Administrative unit of a dense urban core and its satellite cities – region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing.
Global city – City important to the world economy – city that is deemed to be an important node in the global economic system. Globalization is largely created, facilitated and enacted in strategic geographic locales (including global cities) according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade.
Megalopolis – Grouping of neighbouring metropolisesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas. An example is the huge metropolitan area along the eastern seaboard of the U.S. extending from Boston, Massachusetts through New York City; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland and ending in Washington, D.C..
Eperopolis – Hypothetical planet-spanning cityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – theoretical "continent city". The world does not have one yet. Will Europe become the first one?
Ecumenopolis – Hypothetical planet-spanning city – theoretical "world city". Will the world ever become so urbanized as to be called this?
Engineered construct – built feature of the landscape such as a highway, bridge, airport, railroad, building, dam, or reservoir. See also construction engineering and infrastructure.
Artificial landforms
Artificial dwelling hill – Raised ground to provide a refuge from flooding
Artificial island – Island constructed by people
Artificial reef – Human-made underwater structure that functions as a reef
Airport – Facility with a runway for aircraft – place where airplanes can take off and land, including one or more runways and one or more passenger terminals.
Aqueduct – Structure constructed to convey waterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another.
Breakwater – Coastal defense structure – construction designed to break the force of the sea to provide calm water for boats or ships, or to prevent erosion of a coastal feature.
Bridge – Structure built to span physical obstacles – structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical obstacle such as a canyon, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
Building – Structure, typically with a roof and walls, standing more or less permanently in one place – closed structure with walls and a roof.
Canal – Artificial channel for water – artificial waterway, often connecting one body of water with another.
Causeway – Route raised up on an embankment
Dam – Barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface or underground streams – structure placed across a flowing body of water to stop the flow, usually to use the water for irrigation or to generate electricity.
Dike – Ridge or wall to hold back waterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – barrier of stone or earth used to hold back water and prevent flooding.
Levee – Ridge or wall to hold back water – artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels, usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river or the coast.
Farm – Area of land for farming, or, for aquaculture, lake, river, or sea, including various structures – place where agricultural activities take place, especially the growing of crops or the raising of livestock.
Manmade harbor – Sheltered body of water where ships may shelter – harbor that has deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jetties, or which was constructed by dredging.
Industrial region – Geographical region with a high proportion of industrial use
Marina – Dock with moorings and facilities for yachts and small boats
Orchard – Intentionally planted trees or shrubs that are maintained for food production
Parking lot – Cleared area for parking vehicles
Pier – Raised structure in a body of water
Pipeline – Pumping fluids or gas through pipesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Port – Maritime facility where ships may dock to load and discharge passengers and cargo
Railway – Structure comprising rails on a foundation intended to carry trains
Ranch – Large area of land for raising livestock
Reservoir – Bulk storage space for water
Road – Land route
Highway – Public road or other public way on land
Race track – Facility built for racing of animals, vehicles, or athletes
Street – Public thoroughfare in a built environment
Subsidence crater – Hole or depression left on the surface over the site of an underground explosion
Ski resort – Resort developed for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter sports
Train station – Railway facility for loading or unloading trains
Tree farm – Type of forest planted for high volume production of woodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Tunnel – Underground passage made for traffic
Viaduct – Multiple-span bridge crossing an extended lower area
Wharf – Structure on the shore of a harbor or on the bank of a river or canal where ships dock
Abstract geographic feature – does not exist physically in the real world, yet has a location by definition and may be displayed on maps.
Geographical zone – Major regions of Earth's surface demarcated by latitude
Hardiness zone – Region defined by minimum temperature relevant to the plant survival
Time zone – Area that observes a uniform standard time
Political division – A territorial entity for administration purposes
Nation – Community based on common ethnic, cultural or political identity
Administrative division – Territorial entity for administration purposes
Special Economic Zone – Geographical region in which business and trade laws are different from the rest of the countryPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Administrative division – Territorial entity for administration purposes – a designated territory created within a country for administrative or identification purposes. Examples of the types of administrative divisions:
Bailiwick – The area of jurisdiction of a bailiff
Canton – Type of administrative division of a country
Commune – An urban administrative division having corporate status
County – Geographical and administrative region in some countries
Department – Administrative or political division in some countriesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
District – Administrative division in some countries, managed by a local government
Duchy – Territory ruled by, or representing the title of, a duke or duchess
Emirate – Territory ruled by an emir
Federal state – Type of political entity
Parish – Ecclesiastical subdivision of a diocese
Prefecture – Administrative jurisdiction or subdivision in any of various countries
Province – Major administrative subdivision within a country or sovereign state
Region – Two or three-dimensionally defined space, mainly in terrestrial and astrophysics sciences
Rural district – Former type of local government area in England, Wales, and Ireland
Settlement – Community of any size, in which people live
Municipality – Local government area
City – Large permanent human settlement
Borough – Administrative division in some English-speaking countries
Township – Designation for types of settlement as administrative territorial entities
Village – Human settlement smaller than a town
Shire – Traditional term for a division of land, found in some English-speaking countries
State – Territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federal unionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Subdistrict – low level administrative division of a countryPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Subprefecture – Administrative division of a country that is below prefecture
Voivodeship – Administrative division in several countries of central and eastern Europe
Wilayat – Administrative division approximating a state or province
Cartographical feature – theoretical construct used specifically on maps that doesn't have any physical form apart from its location.
Latitude line – Geographic coordinate specifying north–south position
Equator – Imaginary line halfway between Earth's North and South poles
Longitude line – Geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the Earth's surface
Prime Meridian – A line of longitude, at which longitude is defined to be 0°
Geographical pole – Points on a rotating astronomical body where the axis of rotation intersects the surface
North pole – Northern point where the Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface
South pole – Southern point where the Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface
Geographic features that include the natural and artificial
Waterway – Any navigable body of water
List of waterways – List of navigable rivers, canals, estuaries, lakes, and firths
Geography awards
Some awards and competitions in the field of geography:
Geography Cup – 2006 online geography competition
Founder's Medal – List of geography award winnersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Patron's Medal – Award presented by the Royal Geographical SocietyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Hubbard Medal – Medal awarded by the National Geographic Society
National Geographic World Championship – Biennial, two-day-long international geography competition
Victoria Medal – Award presented by the Royal Geographical Society for conspicuous merit in research in geography
Geographical organizations
See: List of geographical societies
European Geography Association
EUROGEO-European Association of Geographers
Gamma Theta Upsilon
International Geographical Union
Geographical publications
= Geographical magazines
=Al Arab
Arizona Highways
Asian Geographic
Atlas (magazine)
Australian Geographic
Canadian Geographic
Chinese National Geography
Le Congo illustré
GEO (magazine)
Géographica
Geographical
Icelandic Geographic
Le Mouvement Géographique
National Geographic
National Geographic Adventure
National Geographic Kids
National Geographic Traveler
New Zealand Geographic
Podróże
Revista Geográfica Española
Rhythms Monthly
Vokrug sveta
Walkabout
The Wide World Magazine
Persons influential in geography
A geographer is a scientist who studies Earth's physical environment and human habitat. Geographers are historically known for making maps, the subdiscipline of geography known as cartography. They study the physical details of the environment and also its effect on human and wildlife ecologies, weather and climate patterns, economics, and culture. Geographers focus on the spatial relationships between these elements.
= Influential physical geographers
=Eratosthenes (276 – 194 BC) – who made the first known reliable estimation of the Earth's size. He is considered the father of geodesy.
Ptolemy (c. 90 – c. 168) – who compiled Greek and Roman knowledge to produce the book Geographia.
Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī (973 – 1048 AD) – considered the father of geodesy.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037) – whose observations in Kitab Al-Shifa contributed to later formulations of the law of superposition and concept of uniformitarianism.
Muhammad al-Idrisi (Dreses, 1100 – c.1165) – who drew the Tabula Rogeriana, the most accurate world map in pre-modern times.
Piri Reis (1465 – c.1554) – whose Piri Reis map is the oldest surviving world map to include the Americas and possibly Antarctica
Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – an innovative cartographer and originator of the Mercator projection.
Bernhardus Varenius (1622–1650) – Wrote his important work "General Geography" (1650) – first overview of the geography, the foundation of modern geography.
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) – father of Russian geography and founded the study of glaciology.
Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – considered the father of modern geography. Published Kosmos and founded the study of biogeography.
Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – who noted the structure of glaciers and advanced the understanding of glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow.
Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) – the author of a glacial theory which disputed the notion of a steady-cooling Earth.
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) – founder of modern biogeography and the Wallace line.
Vasily Dokuchaev (1846–1903) – patriarch of Russian geography and founder of pedology.
Wladimir Peter Köppen (1846–1940) – developer of most important climate classification and founder of Paleoclimatology.
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography, founder of Geomorphology and developer of the geographical cycle theory.
Walther Penck (1888–1923) – proponent of the cycle of erosion and the simultaneous occurrence of uplift and denudation.
Sir Ernest Shackleton (1874–1922) – Antarctic explorer during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.
Robert E. Horton (1875–1945) – founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as infiltration capacity and overland flow.
J Harlen Bretz (1882–1981) – pioneer of research into the shaping of landscapes by catastrophic floods, most notably the Bretz (Missoula) floods.
Willi Dansgaard (born 1922) – palaeoclimatologist and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of oxygen-isotope dating and co-identifier of Dansgaard–Oeschger events.
Hans Oeschger (1927–1998) – palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research, co-identifier of Dansgaard-Orschger events.
Richard Chorley (1927–2002) – a key contributor to the quantitative revolution and the use of systems theory in geography.
Sir Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006) – who demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun.
Stefan Rahmstorf (born 1960) – professor of abrupt climate changes and author on theories of thermohaline dynamics.
= Influential human geographers
=Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern geography and first chair in geography at the Humboldt University of Berlin, also noted for his use of organic analogy in his works.
Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904) – environmental determinist, invented the term Lebensraum
Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French School of geopolitics and possibilism.
Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861–1947) – author of The Geographical Pivot of History, co-founder of the London School of Economics, along with the Geographical Association.
Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – critic of environmental determinism and proponent of cultural ecology.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – economic geographer and developer of the central place theory.
Richard Hartshorne (1899–1992) – scholar of the history and philosophy of geography.
Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004) – critic of the quantitative revolution and regional science, noted figure in critical geography.
Milton Santos (1926–2001) winner of the Vautrin Lud prize in 1994, one of the most important geographers in South America.
Waldo R. Tobler (born 1930) – developer of the First law of geography.
Yi-Fu Tuan (born 1930) A Chinese-American geographer.
David Harvey (born 1935) – world's most cited academic geographer and winner of the Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud, also noted for his work in critical geography and critique of global capitalism.
Evelyn Stokes (1936–2005). Professor of geography at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. Known for recognizing inequality with marginalized groups, including women and Māori using geography.
Allen J. Scott (born 1938) – winner of Vautrin Lud Prize in 2003 and the Anders Retzius Gold medal 2009; author of numerous books and papers on economic and urban geography, known for his work on regional development, new industrial spaces, agglomeration theory, global city-regions and the cultural economy.
Edward Soja (born 1941) – noted for his work on regional development, planning, and governance, along with coining the terms synekism and postmetropolis.
Doreen Massey (born 1944) – key scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.
Michael Watts, Class of 1963 Professor of Geography and Development Studies, University of California, Berkeley
Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – developer of non-representational theory.
Derek Gregory (born 1951) – famous for writing on the Israeli, U.S. and UK actions in the Middle East after 9/11, influenced by Edward Said and has contributed work on imagined geographies.
Cindi Katz (born 1954) – who writes on social reproduction and the production of space. Writing on children's geographies, place and nature, everyday life and security.
Gillian Rose (born 1962) – most famous for her critique: Feminism & Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge (1993) – which was one of the first moves towards development of feminist geography.
Geography educational frameworks
Educational frameworks upon which primary and secondary school curricula for geography are based include:
Five themes of geography – Educational tool
Location – Point or an area on Earth's surface or elsewherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – a position or point that something occupies on the Earth's surface.
Place – Point or an area on Earth's surface or elsewherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Human-environment interaction – Study of interactions between societies and their natural environments
movement –
Region – Two or three-dimensionally defined space, mainly in terrestrial and astrophysics sciences
The six "essential elements" identified by the Geography Education Standards Project, under which the National Geography Standards they developed are organized:
The World in spatial terms
Places and regions
Physical systems
Human systems
Environment and society
The uses of geography
The three content areas of geography from the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress (U.S.):
Space and place
Environment and society
Spatial dynamics and connections
See also
References
External links
Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). Glossary of Terms for Physical Geography. Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. ISBN 9780987702906. Available on Google Play.
Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). Understanding Physical Geography. Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. ISBN 9780987702944. Available on Google Play.
Kata Kunci Pencarian:
- Kesultanan Utsmaniyah
- Hong Kong
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- Hutan hujan Amazon
- County Bradford, Pennsylvania
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- Kalingga (India)
- Agama Hindu
- Vatikan
- Outline of geography
- Outline of India
- Outline of academic disciplines
- Outline of ancient India
- Geography
- Outline of the United Kingdom
- Outline of Metro Manila
- Outline of industry
- Outline of Puntland
- Outline of ancient China
