• Source: Bangladeshi English literature

Bangladeshi English literature (BEL) refers to the body of literary work written in the English language in Bangladesh and the Bangladeshi diaspora. In academia, it is also now referred to as Bangladeshi Writing in English (BWE). Early prominent Bengali writers in English include Ram Muhan Roy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Begum Rokeya, and Rabindranath Tagore. In 1905, Begum Rokeya (1880–1932) wrote Sultana's Dream, one of the earliest examples of feminist science fiction. Modern writers of the Bangladeshi diaspora include Tahmima Anam, Neamat Imam, Monica Ali, and Zia Haider Rahman.




Writers and their contributions (1774–2023)






Emergence of English in the Bangla Region (1774–1855)


The emergence of English-based literature in the Indian subcontinent is intertwined with the advent of the British Raj, with some of the important early examples being the critical essays of Raja Ram Muhan Roy, Thomas Babington Macaulay’s educational work including the Minutes on Indian Education, and the establishment of Hindu college.




= Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774–1833)

=
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774–1833) is a foundational figure in Bangla literature. He is more remembered for his social reforms, but also contributed to the spread of English not only by establishing it as a medium of education but also as the first moral essayist of Bengali English literature.
Ram Mohan Roy was important for motivating the British Raj to establish Hindu college and introducing English as a medium of instruction. Chakraborty states that:

Prior to the advent of the British in India, the indigenous primary schools of Bengal taught very little beyond Bangla, simple Arithmetic, and Sanskrit, and the tols imparted lessons in advanced Sanskrit, grammar, and literature, theology, logic, and metaphysics. This failed to satisfy the aspirations of enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who felt that the process would only help to 'load the minds of youths with grammatical niceties and metaphysical distinctions' which had no practical use.
To solve this, Ram Mohan Roy aided the native gentry as well as the government to establish a formal institution for teaching secular ideologies, rather than Indian metaphysics and mythology.
Rashid Askari wrote that "Raja Ram Mohan Roy ..., the father of the Bengali Renaissance, was also the 'father of Indian literature in English'". Askari further notes that "[h]e was the pioneer of a literary trend that has extended over a vast area of the subcontinent, including Bangladesh". While in Rangpur, Ram Mohan took an interest in political developments in England and Europe. He read all the journals and newspapers that Digby got from England, and thereby not only improved his knowledge of English, which he had started to learn at the age of twenty-two, but also acquired considerable knowledge of European political thought. Through Digby it is evident that Ram Mohan was attracted by the political liberalism prevailing in Europe at that time.
Ghose has made a thorough discussion on the English work of Ram Mohan Roy. The following lists sketch the man's effort for social and political reformations from the perspectives of liberalism.

Thus, the emergence of Ram Muhan Roy, the establishment of the Hindu College, and Macaulay's Minutes helped the emergence of English in the Bengal region. At this point, English literature writing in the Bangla region became much more accessible and common.




Period of early singing birds (1830–1870)


The "Period of Early Singing Birds" (1830–1870) refers to a distinctive phase in the development of English literature in Bengal, now Bangladesh, which saw the emergence of the first significant literary voices expressing themselves in English. This period is marked by the works of a group of pioneering writers, often referred to as the "early singing birds" of Bengali literature, who navigated the cultural crossroads between traditional Bengali sensibilities and the influences of British colonial rule.




= Prominent Figures

=
Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824–1873) – Dutt is one of the most famous figures from this period and is often regarded as the first significant poet to write in English in Bengal. Though best known for his Bengali works, including Meghnadh Badh Kavya (The Slaying of Meghnadh), Dutt's contributions to English poetry, including his poetry collection Poems, marked him as a leading figure of this early literary phase.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809–1831) – Derozio, an Anglo-Indian poet and educator, played a pioneering role in the use of English in Bengali literary circles. As a teacher at Hindu College in Calcutta (now Kolkata), Derozio influenced many young Bengali students, emphasizing the importance of Western ideas like rationalism and humanism. His poetry reflects these influences and addresses themes of love, patriotism, and the questioning of tradition.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) – Though Tagore's literary career extended well beyond this period, his early writings were part of the emerging English literary tradition in Bengal. His poetry, initially written in Bengali and later translated into English, gained global recognition, with works such as Gitanjali (Song Offerings) winning him the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913.
Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899–1976) – Although slightly outside the strict timeline of this early period, Nazrul's works often hark back to the influences of the "singing birds" of the 19th century. His radical, anti-colonial themes, as well as his exploration of Bengali cultural identity, made him one of the most important figures in later Bengali literature.




Light of reason (1870–1905)






Emergence of Muslim consciousness (1905–1947)






Pre-liberation period (1947–1971)






Post-liberation sensibility (1971–1980)






Transnational experimentation (1980–2000)






Contemporary scene (2000–2022)


Contemporary Bangladeshi English writers write about the details of transnationalism, the Liberation War, political disharmony, massive unplanned urbanization, and identity issues.
A Golden Age by Tahmima Anam is set during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. Anam is also the author of The Good Muslim. Zia Haider Rahman, a British Bangladeshi novelist, published his debut novel In the Light of What We Know in 2014, which won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for literature in 2015. Monica Ali’s Brick Lane was shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 2003. Published in the US in 2018, Fayeza Hasanat's debut short story collection The Bird Catcher and Other Stories addresses gender expectations, familial love, and questions of identity and belonging. Like A Diamond in the Sky by Shazia Omar portrays the psychedelic world of Dhaka's university students, who are caught up in the haze of drugs, punk rock, and fusion. Rashid Askari’s short story collection Nineteen Seventy One and Other Stories (2011) has been translated into French and Hindi. In 2019, Mehrab Masayeed Habib wrote a novel named Slice of Paradise. It is an English novel based on Dhaka in the 1960s and published by Swore O Publication.




= Native Bangladeshi Contributions

=



Fakrul Alam

Fakrul Alam (born July 20, 1951) is a scholar, writer, and translator. He writes on literary and postcolonial issues and has translated works by Jibanananda Das and Rabindranath Tagore into English. He has also translated Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's autobiographical works Asamapta Atmajibani (The Unfinished Memoirs) and Karagarer Rojnamcha (Prison Diaries), and Mir Mossaraf Hossain's epic novel Bishad-Sindhu (Ocean of Sorrow). In 2012, he was the recipient of the Bangla Academy Literary Award in translation and the SAARC Literary Award.
Notable works include:

Jibanananda Das: Selected Poems with an Introduction, Chronology, and Glossary
Ocean of Sorrow
Essential Tagore
The Unfinished Memoirs
Prison Diaries



Syed Manzoorul Islam


The Merman's Prayer and Other Stories eternalizes Syed Manzoorul Islam: the narrative of the stories entangle reality and fantasy. Twists and turns prevail in their narration. The characters emerge from the fringes of Bangladeshi societies and the urban middle class. Desires and deprivations, ecstasies and frustrations engulf all the characters presented.



Kaiser Hamidul Haq

Kaiser Haq is the most prominent name in Bangladeshi English-language poetry. He has contributed to the fields of poetry, translation of the poems of Shamsur Rahman, the leading poet of Bangladesh, and also prose translation. His works include:



Niaz Zaman

Niaz Zaman is a writer, translator and academic. She was honored with the Bangla Academy Literary Award in 2016 for her contribution to translation. Trees without Roots is a trans-created novel by Zaman grounded on Syed Waliullah’s novel Laal Shalu. Trees without Roots depicts the natural scenery of Bangladesh including the ravages of nature - floods, and storms. She also shows the use of religion for food and shelter by the people. This English novel brings the Bengali mind to the English-speaking world and shows impact of religion as well as superstition on the village populace of Bengal.



Sabiha Haq

Sabiha Haq (born January 1, 1977) has garnered a reputation for postcolonial and gender issues, women's writings, and cultural studies. The Mughal Aviary highlights the literary contributions of four Muslim women in the Mughal regime in pre-modern India: Gulbadan, Jahanara, Zeb-un-Nessa, and Habba Khatoon, the Nightingale of Kashmir. Their literary sensibilities were exposed with deep concern by the author who could never fail to highlight how gender politics made a mark on their lives and activities which were sufficient to efface their literary faculties. This book covers roughly 200 years of the 16th and 17th centuries, reflecting the subjective tone and the self-fashioning of the princess under the Mughal regime through the forms of biography, hagiography and poetry by the four Zenana writers. Their writings depict a strong place for those women who could create a counterculture within the imposed culture they grew up in. The book The Mughal Aviary shows the dignity of the Muslim women as undiscovered writers and how the annals of history failed to pay due respect to their contributions.



= Theme
=
The book cherishes the contribution of the three Mughal princesses: Gulbadan Begam (1523–1603), the youngest daughter of the Mughal Emperor Babur, Jahanara (1614–1681), the eldest daughter of the Emperor Shah Jahan, and Zeb-un-Nissa (1638–1702), the eldest daughter of the last Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. The book also highlights the nightingale of Kashmir, Habba Khatoon (1554–1609). This book makes a thorough discussion and critical evaluation of Humayun-Nama (a biography on the emperor Humayun, the half-brother to Gulbadan Begam) by Gulbadan Begam, where the biographer delves into the lives of the wife and daughters of the Mughal Emperor, Babur. The hagiography by Jahanara tends to glorify the Mughal monarchy. The third writer excels in poetry where the subaltern spirit peeps up with magical gaiety. Habba is famed for her lyricism in Kashmiri poetry. Her pangs of separation add an elegiac tone to the regional poetry. Thus, the author, Sabiha Haq, excavates the prominence of Muslim women's writings even in pre-modern India, while history supposes to deliberately suppress the contributions of those living at the subaltern periphery.



= Chapter details
=
The Mughal Aviary has six chapters, as follows:

"The Mughal Aviary and Women In/Out"
"Humayun's Biographer Gulbadan Begam: A Quiet Observer of the Aviary"
"Jahanara's Hagiographies: The Mind of A Matriarch"
"Dissenting Songbird in the Aviary: The Poetry of Zeb-un-Nissa"
"The Plaintive Songbird beyond the Aviary: Habba Khatoon's Lol"
"Where to Conclude?"
Chapter one exposes the thought on the key metaphor, the aviary, distinctively featured with the harem or zenana established by the Mughals alongside their other khash mahals (special chambers). This chapter seeks to explore the unsought stories from the women, especially the sojourners of the "aviary" like the princess of the Mughal emperors. The scope of the "aviary" extends to the Queen of Kashmir who is linked among the other Mughal Sahajadies as Kashmir was annexed by the Mughal emperors and Habba Khatoon was the last queen of the Free Kashmir. Thus, the first chapter covers the literary women who had to peep up their heads with the literary spree during the Mughal period while the harem existed.
The second chapter deals with Gulbadan as a biographer. Gulbadan positions Humayun from the neutral point of view being a man of flesh and blood as well as of a strong sense of justice. Haq judges Gulbadan for making keen observations regarding Humayun's characteristics.
The third chapter delves into the hagiography of Jahanara Begam, where the biography is given a "self-fashioning", according to the author. Jahanara writes a biography on Sufi masters like Hadrat Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya in Munis-ul-Arwah, and Mullah Shah Badakhshi in Risala-i-Sahibiyah. She focuses on the spiritual power – soft power per se – of those Sufis that led to the spread of the Mughal dynasty. The Mughal Aviary traces the masculine flavor imposed on the translation of Jahanara's biography.
Chapter four points out the double marginalization of Zeb-un-Nissa. She is firstly a political victim and secondly the victim of subaltern marginalization; her poetry was not given a place in the annals of literary history in Mughal India.
Chapter five projects the plaintive notes of Habba Khatoon through her elegiac tone and lol. Habba had to embrace widowhood and loneliness due to Mughal state terrorism; the author sheds light on her poetry with the same effort as for the harem shahzadis.
The last chapter is developed with the author's argument that the course of the feminism and its history in the South Asian region needs to be redefined as to evaluate the literary contributions made by these four Muslim women under the patriarchal design of history.
Her "A Liminal Bengali Identity: Film Culture in Bangladesh" in Media Culture in Transnational Asia: Convergences and Divergences published by Rutgers University Press in 2020, transcends her proneness to cultural studies apart from the much-coveted area of the feminine-literary cosmos that is evident throughout her research work as well as her entries on Tahmima Anam, Selina Hossain, and Jahanara Imam in the Literary Encyclopedia.



Rashid Askari

Rashid Askari (born June 1, 1965) is a prolific writer in Bangladesh writing both in Bangla and English. His English short story collection Nineteen Seventy One and Other Stories (2011) claims the secured place in the English literary arena of Bangladesh. The author is firmly committed to the 1971 Liberation War spirit through this book. The indomitable nationalism touches upon every aspect of the characters. The author shows his deeply rooted belongingness to the land, the culture and the heritage of Bangladesh.

Askari sings the saga of mortified bravery of the women who may be prostitutes by profession, but pure in heart. Hence, Bashanti never craves for life in the sight of the hounds. Rather, she transcends herself through sacrifice. The story "The Maiden Whore" consoles:Bashanti was sinking headlong into the deep waters like a harpoon-hit mermaid. She knew she was nearing the end of her life. But she felt happy to think that she was still virgin. She had not been defiled by the alien beasts!



Meherab Habib

Meherab Habib is born and brought up in Dhaka and published his debut novel, Slice of Paradise, in 2019. He takes writing as a passion and engineering as a profession.
The contemporary Bangladeshi English writers who represent the young generations are either English-medium students living in Bangladesh or diaspora generations who are living abroad and feel the urge to express. These specified characteristic writers have a few things in common in that the Liberation War, political ups and downs, transnational experience, fundamentalism and massive urbanization serve as the background for their writings. The writings of Tahamina Anam, Monica Ali, etc. are rooted in the theme of the Liberation War of Bangladesh and transnational identity searching with the backdrop of multi-nationality. Selim, Anarkoli, Arman and Labonee experience transnational identity and the search for the best place to settle all through the novels. Threading through the novel is a grand family drama that enables all the characters to feel a need for communion with the family. Labonee could not continue her strike activities as she feels weak in mind; Anowar leaves the battlefield and joined their family in Salt Lake, Calcutta, upon the suspicion of being caught by the military. It seems "heart is where home is" to almost all the characters of this novel. Kabir feels free upon his arrival in Dhaka from West Pakistan as he reiterates:




= Saroar Imran Mahmood

=
Saroar Imran Mahmood was born in 1971. He published his debut poetry book Tears and Poems in 2023. He takes writing as a passion.




= Contribution of the Bangladeshi Diaspora

=



Monica Ali

Monica Ali's debut novel Brick Lane was published in 2003 and shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize that very year. This contribution acquires a shared space in the Bangladeshi English literary sphere, being a massive wake-up call from the Bangladeshi Diaspora. Ali was born in 1967 in Bangladesh and immigrated to England in 1971; all her growth, study, and settlement occurred in England. From this perspective, the characterizations and the evolving theme around the characters in the Brick Lane can never be addressed as her personal experiences; rather, these are her researched work on the plight of immigrants through generations and their nature of integration as well as disintegration with the host cultures.
Nazneen is brought to England by Chanu through settled marriage. Chanu is a middle-aged man searching for his fate in England; Nazneen is an adolescent representing the subservient, docile, submissive wife who is a perfect choice for Chanu as he believes women must have wifely and motherly behavior in the British perspective. Nazneen follows the code validated by Chanu, gives birth to a son and two daughters, and satisfies Chanu, being only a wife in mind.
The change of currents takes place as Nazneen feels a sense of beloningness in British society along with her two daughters in the absence of Chanu's knowledge on what is going on in the psyche of his wife. Chanu fails to cope with British society and expresses his wish to retreat to Bangladesh, which is met with direct protest from his wife and daughters. Nazneen can think out of the shell of the conch; she feels herself liberated, self-dominated‚ self-directed even upon the loss of the marital tie. Chanu here represents the first-generation Bangladeshi immigrant who feels guilt for the loss of his parental root in Bangladesh and longs for that past, though Nazneen, along with her daughters, belongs to the generations nonaligned with that of Chanu. Here lies the prime crisis all through the novel Brick Lane.



Tahmima Anam

Tahmima Anam was born in Bangladesh in 1975 and brought up abroad. Now she is settled in England. She is well known among Bangladeshi readers for her trilogy: A Golden Age (2007), The Good Muslim (2011) and The Bones of Grace (2016). This trilogy attempts to sketch out the family and socio-political ups and downs during the factional periods around the Liberation War, the rise of Muslim militancy and the reign of dictatorship in Bangladesh ranging from 1971 to the 1990s. The Golden Age (2007) was awarded the Commonwealth Prize for the first book category in 2008.
In an interview with The Guardian, Anam tells of her purposeful intentions to write the trilogy on the background of Bangladeshi society entangled with family bonding, religious inclination, and political upheavals. Anam says:

Those books were my way of putting myself back into that identity. I would wake up, sit down at my desk, cry all day and write, and then I would turn my computer off and go to sleep. If you feel, as I did, a very complex relationship to a place, writing a book about it is a great way to stake your claim: that is my country, that is my history.
Anam has been credited with two other books, The Startup Wife (2021), and The Face: Third World Blues (2021). The Golden Age (2007) and The Good Muslim (2011) are developed in the context of Bangladesh. Instead, The Bones of Grace (2016), The Startup Wife (2021), and The Face: Third World Blues (2021) reiterate the experiences of an immigrant, the search for identity, and an unattainable experience of escapism. The protagonists are in the labyrinths whether they lose their parental connections, whether they are guilty of it, whether they should search for them, or whether they should keep abreast with the changing trends of the context.



Tariq Omar Ali


Tariq Omar Ali taught history at University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign and, since 2019, at Georgetown University. His teaching and writings focus on nineteenth- and twentieth-century South Asia and global histories of capital. His writing is research-oriented and focuses on the everyday lives of ordinary men and women, which are shaped by transnational circulations of commodities and capital. His first research book, the non-fiction A Local History of Global Capital: Jute and Peasant Life in the Bengal Delta, explores how global capitalism shaped peasant life and society in the Bengal Delta during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The writer has also continued this exploration of how "decolonization, independence, and the rise of the nation-state restructured the working lives of peasants, boatmen, itinerant traders, and small businessmen in post-colonial East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) in the 1950s and 1960s".
Tariq Omar Ali's A Local History of Global Capital: Jute and Peasant Life in the Bengal Delta (Princeton University Press, 2018) is a lucidly documented non-fiction wrought on the implication of the entire economic process of jute that enabled the Bengal Delta to make a significant mark in socio-political, cultural and regional development beginning from the British regime, and culminating with the dawn of the Pakistani period.
Omar has made the effort to consider the economic history, the golden economic history, of the then eastern region of the British Indian subcontinent, and the author would likely show the effort of infrastructure development, the urbanization process and the development of the Muslim consciousness. This consciousness gave the land influence in regional politics; thus a sense of nationalism grew in the public and the ultimate destiny of this consciousness brought the public to be the owner of a sovereign land, Bangladesh.
The back cover description of the non-fiction work reads:

Taking readers from the nineteenth-century high noon of the British Raj to the early years of post-partition Pakistan in the mid-twentieth century, Tariq Omar Ali traces how the global connections wrought by jute transformed every facet of peasant life: practices of work, leisure, domesticity, and sociality; ideas and discourses of justice, ethics, piety, and religiosity; and political commitments and actions. Ali examines how peasant life was structured and restructured with oscillations in global commodity markets, as the nineteenth-century period of peasant consumerism and prosperity gave way to debt and poverty in the twentieth century.



Neamat Imam

Neamat Imam is a Bangladeshi-Canadian fiction writer (born January 5, 1971) whose name was popularized with the debut novel The Black Coat, a novel that uses a Bangladeshi political setting around 1974 when the Mujib government experienced a famine. Black Coat is a metaphor that represents the father of the Bengali nation, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The novel proceeds through analytical narratives of his political diction and philosophy and creates a dystopian arena run by the philosophy of totalitarianism. Khaleque Biswas, Nur Hossain and Moina Mia are the major characters in the novel; the story continues with narration from Khaleque Biswas, who, after fired from a job in journalism, joins the propaganda work for Mujib, the possessor of the 'Black Coat'.



Zia Haider Rahman

Main Article: Zia Haider Rahman
Rahman's debut novel is the 2014 In the Light of What We Know.




Media and journals


Bangladesh has an influential English-language press, including newspapers The Daily Star, New Age, Dhaka Tribune, The Muslim Times, and The Independent, which bring out regular literary supplements. Prominent magazines include The Star, Slate, Dhaka Courier and Forum. Bengal Lights is one of the country's few English literary journals.




See also


Bangladeshi English
Hay Festival Dhaka




References

Kata Kunci Pencarian:

• Kekaisaran Mughal (1526–1857)
• Misogini
• Ahmadiyаh
• Britania Raya
• Tripitaka Pali
• Badak sumatra
• Theravāda
• Jerman
• Khuddakapāṭha
• Parakanonika (Theravāda)
• Bangladeshi English literature
• Bangladeshi English
• Indian English literature
• Bangladeshi folk literature
• Bengali literature
• Postcolonial literature
• English-medium schools in Bangladesh
• Languages of Bangladesh
• Bangladesh
• Asian literature