- Source: Dactylis glomerata
- Source: Dactylis Glomerata
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Dactylis glomerata is a species of flowering plant in the grass family Poaceae, known as cock's-foot, also colloquially as orchard grass, or cat grass (due to its popularity for use with domestic cats). It is a cool-season perennial C3 tufted grass native throughout most of Europe, temperate Asia, and northern Africa.
Distribution
Dactylis glomerata occurs from sea level in the north of its range, to as high as 4,000 metres in elevation in the south of its range in Pakistan. It is widely used for hay and forage.
It is a principal species in the widespread National Vegetation Classification habitat community MG1 (Arrhenatherum elatius grassland) in the United Kingdom, and so can be found with Arrhenatherum elatius (false oat grass).
It can be found in meadows, pasture, roadsides, and rough grassland.
It has been introduced into North America, New Zealand and Australia, and is now widely naturalised. In some areas, it has become an invasive species.
Description
Cock's-foot grows in dense perennial tussocks to 20–140 centimetres (7.9–55.1 in; 0.66–4.59 ft) tall, with grey-green leaves 20–50 centimetres (7.9–19.7 in; 0.66–1.64 ft) long and up to 1.5 centimetres (0.59 in) broad, and a distinctive tufted triangular flowerhead 10–50 centimetres (3.9–19.7 in; 0.33–1.64 ft) long, which may be either green or red- to purple-tinged (usually green in shade, redder in full sun), turning pale grey-brown at seed maturity. The spikelets are 5–9 millimetres (0.20–0.35 in) long, typically containing two to five flowers. It has a characteristic flattened stem base which distinguishes it from many other grasses.
It flowers from June to September.
Taxonomy
Dactylis glomerata is treated as the sole species in the genus Dactylis by some authors, while others include one to four other species. It is commonly divided into several regional subspecies, particularly by those authors accepting only the single species. Plants of the World Online accepts 20 subspecies.
Dactylis glomerata subsp. glomerata (synonyms subsp. altaica and subsp. himalayensis) – widespread; described from Europe
Dactylis glomerata subsp. hackelii (Asch. & Graebn.) Cif. & Giacom. (syns. subsp. marina, D. marina Borrill, and D. maritima (Hack.) Rivas Mart.) – Mediterranean and Madeira
Dactylis glomerata subsp. hispanica (Roth) Nyman (syn. D. hispanica Roth) – Mediterranean and western Asia to Afghanistan
Dactylis glomerata subsp. hyrcana Tzvelev (syn. D. hyrcana) – eastern Transcaucasus
Dactylis glomerata nothosubsp. intercedens (Domin) Acedo (D. glomerata subsp. glomerata × D. glomerata; syns. subsp. lobata and D. × intercedens Domin) – Germany and Czechoslovakia
Dactylis glomerata subsp. izcoi S.Ortiz & Rodr.Oubiña (syn. D. izcoi Horjales, Laso & Redondo) – Portugal and western Spain
Dactylis glomerata subsp. judaica Stebbins & D.Zohary – Israel
Dactylis glomerata subsp. juncinella (Bory) Stebbins & D.Zohary (syn. D. juncinella Bory – southern Spain (Sierra Nevada) and Morocco
Dactylis glomerata subsp. lobata (Drejer) H.Lindb. (syns. D. lobata (Drejer) Ostenf., subsp. aschersoniana, D. aschersoniana Graebn., D. polygamaHorv., and D. scabra W.Mann ex Opiz) – western and central Europe to the Caucasus
Dactylis glomerata subsp. lusitanica Stebbins & D.Zohary – northwestern Spain to central Portugal
Dactylis glomerata subsp. mairei Stebbins & D.Zohary – northeastern Algeria
Dactylis glomerata subsp. merinoana (Horjales, Laso & Redondo) H.Scholz – Iberian Peninsula
Dactylis glomerata subsp. nestorii Rosselló & L.Sáez (syns. subsp. ibizensis, D. ibizensis Gand.) – Balearic Islands (Ibiza and Formentera)
Dactylis glomerata subsp. oceanica G.Guignard – western and northwestern France
Dactylis glomerata subsp. reichenbachii (Dalla Torre & Sarnth.) Stebbins & D.Zohary – Alps (Austria, France, Italy)
Dactylis glomerata subsp. rigida (Boiss. & Heldr.) Hayek (syn. D. rigida Boiss. & Heldr.) – Crete
Dactylis glomerata subsp. santai Stebbins & D.Zohary – northern Algeria and Tunisia
Dactylis glomerata subsp. slovenica (Domin) Domin (syn. D. slovenica Domin) – Alps, Carpathians, and northern Balkan Peninsula
Dactylis glomerata subsp. stebbinsii (Horjales, Laso & Redondo) H.Scholz – southern Spain
Dactylis glomerata subsp. woronowii (Ovcz.) Stebbins & D.Zohary (syn. D. woronowii Ovcz.) – Caucasus
Dactylis glomerata subsp. glomerata and subsp. hispanica are tetraploid forms with 28 chromosomes; some of the other subspecies, including subsp. himalayensis and subsp. lobata are diploid, with 2n = 14. Hexaploid forms with 42 chromosomes are also known, but rare. Tetraploid forms are larger and coarser than diploid forms.
Cultivation and uses
Cock's-foot is widely used as a hay grass and for pastures because of its high yields and sugar content, which makes it sweeter than most other temperate grasses. In dry areas as in much of Australia, Mediterranean subspecies such as subsp. hispanica are preferred for their greater drought tolerance. It requires careful grazing management; if it is undergrazed it becomes coarse and unpalatable.
In some areas to which it has been introduced, cock's-foot has become an invasive weed, notably some areas of the eastern United States.
As with other grasses, the pollen can cause allergic rhinitis (hay fever) in some people.
The grass is popularly grown to satisfy the craving of domestic cats to chew grass, hence its colloquial name cat grass.
The seeds were first collected by Rogers Parker in Hertfordshire; this was then developed by the agricultural reformer Coke of Norfolk. Parker's estate, Munden, near Bricket Wood, was inherited by the botanist George Hibbert.
Butterfly foodplant
The caterpillars of many butterfly species feed on cock's foot, including:
Meadow brown (Maniola jurtina)
Wall brown (Lasiommata megera)
Gatekeeper (Pyronia tithonus)
Large skipper (Ochlodes venata)
Essex skipper (Thymelicus lineola)
Small skipper (Thymelicus sylvestris)
Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon)
Speckled wood (Pararge aegeria)
References
Artikel: Dactylis Glomerata GudangMovies21 Rebahinxxi
Dactylis Glomerata is the sixth studio album by Swedish doom metal band Candlemass, released on 13 April 1998 through Music For Nations. This was their first album released since their split in 1994.
The album was originally destined to be the second release by Candlemass main songwriter Leif Edling's side-project Abstrakt Algebra but, under request from the record label Music for Nations, it was converted into a Candlemass album. There were many musicians involved in the long process of recording, including members of the Abstrakt Algebra's line-up, guitarist Michael Amott of Arch Enemy and Carcass fame and new singer Björn Flodkvist.
The music on the album lacks much of the epic doom sound of previous works and embraces a more experimental and progressive approach, with elements of stoner rock and space rock.
In 2006, it was reissued by GMR Music as a 2 CD edition. The second disc contains the previously unreleased album Abstrakt Algebra II, from which this album's tracks derived.
Background
Candlemass disbanded in 1994, after the release of the EP Sjunger Sigge Furst. Main songwriter and bassist Leif Edling formed a new band called Abstrakt Algebra with singer Mats Levén, drummer Jejo Perkovic, guitarists Mike Wead and Simon Johansson. Abstrakt Algebra released their eponymous debut album of experimental and progressive metal in 1995. The album received some good reviews but was not a commercial success.
Composition and recording
Edling composed music for a second more progressive Abstrakt Algebra album and started recording it with a different line-up, which included keyboard player Carl Westholm and guitarist Patrik Instedt replacing Wead and Johansson, at Sunlight Studio, Stockholm, Sweden in the Autumn of 1996. Soon problems emerged with the recording studio and the producer and Edling's finances dried up. Music for Nations, the British label which had issued the previous Candlemass albums, offered Edling to finance further recordings in a different studio if the album was released as a work by Candlemass. Edling, who was on the edge of bankruptcy and a mental breakdown, agreed to this condition and rearranged the songs to adapt them to the heavier doom metal sound of Candlemass. He also composed the new songs "I Still See the Black", "Molotov" and "Karthago" for the album.
His old bandmates declined Edlin's request for collaboration, so he recruited Swedish guitarist Michael Amott, renowned for his work with Carcass, Spiritual Beggars and Arch Enemy and a declared Candlemass fan, to beef up the guitar sound on the tracks. Meanwhile, Levén had joined Yngwie Malmsteen's band and Björn Flodkvist, who Edlin had met while working at Sveriges Radio P3 and coming from the Swedish alternative rock band Gone, was selected as singer.
A band composed by Edling, Amott, Flodkvist, Instedt, Perkovic and Westholm re-recorded during a weekend in May 1997 the basic tracks for the old Abstrakt Algebra songs and for the new compositions "I Still See the Black", "Karthago" and "Wiz" (originally called "Blue Wizard") with the help of session musicians at Swedish Broadcasting Corporation Studio 4 in Stockholm, Sweden. Those three days of recording were Amott's only involvement with Candlemass. Overdubs were added by several other musicians at two other studios of the same city. The final mix, performed by Edling and engineer Uffe Östling, joined the new recordings and more overdubs until after September 1997.
Release
The album took about 18 months to be completed and was released on 13 April 1998 by Music for Nations. The Japanese edition featured the bonus tracks "Container" and "Thirst". The title comes from the plant Dactylis glomerata, the flower of which Edling is allergic to.
Dactylis Glomerata was reissued in 2006 in a 2 CD edition by the Swedish label GMR Music and by Peaceville Records in 2008. The second disc contains the Abstrakt Algebra sessions recorded by the band in 1996 and extensive liner notes by Edling.
Reception
Dactylis Glomerata received positive reviews, but was a commercial failure.
Canadian journalist Martin Popoff praised the "trippy, not cheesy" production and Björn Flodkvist's vocals, considering the album "closer to stoner rock than self-serious doom". Rock Hard reviewer remarked how different the sound of Dactylis Glomerata is in comparison with the "classic" first four Candlemass albums, lacking "their anthemic, epic arrangements", "the theatrical element, which has always characterized the vocals of Messiah" (Marcolin), and featuring elements of space rock in several tracks like the "monumental 'Dustflow'".