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A heuristic or heuristic technique (problem solving, mental shortcut, rule of thumb) is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized, perfected, or rationalized, but is nevertheless "good enough" as an approximation or attribute substitution. Where finding an optimal solution is impossible or impractical, heuristic methods can be used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution. Heuristics can be mental shortcuts that ease the cognitive load of making a decision.

Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction, or on analogy ... Induction is the process of discovering general laws ... Induction tries to find regularity and coherence ... Its most conspicuous instruments are generalization, specialization, analogy. [...] Heuristic discusses human behavior in the face of problems [... that have been] preserved in the wisdom of proverbs.




Context



Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier (2011) state that sub-sets of strategy include heuristics, regression analysis, and Bayesian inference.

A heuristic is a strategy that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more complex methods (Gigerenzer and Gaissmaier [2011], p. 454; see also Todd et al. [2012], p. 7).
Heuristics are strategies based on rules to generate optimal decisions, like the anchoring effect and utility maximization problem. These strategies depend on using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings, machines and abstract issues. When an individual applies a heuristic in practice, it generally performs as expected. However it can alternatively create systematic errors.
The most fundamental heuristic is trial and error, which can be used in everything from matching nuts and bolts to finding the values of variables in algebra problems. In mathematics, some common heuristics involve the use of visual representations, additional assumptions, forward/backward reasoning and simplification.
Dual process theory concerns embodied heuristics.




Heuristic rigour models



Lakatosian heuristics is based on the key term: Justification (epistemology).




= One-reason decisions

=

One-reason decisions are algorithms that are made of three rules: search rules, confirmation rules (stopping), and decision rules

Take-the-best heuristic – Decision-making strategy
Hiatus heuristic: a "recency-of-last-purchase rule"
Default effect – Tendency to accept the default option
Priority heuristic
Take-the-first heuristic




= Recognition-based decisions

=
A class whose function is to determine and filter out superfluous things.

Recognition heuristic – Decision-making Concept in PsychologyPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Fluency heuristic – Mental heuristic




= Tracking heuristics

=

Tracking heuristics is a class of heuristics.

Gaze heuristic
Pointing and calling – Railway safety technique




= Trade-off

=
Trade-off – Situational decision
Tallying heuristic
Equality heuristic




= Social heuristics

=
Social heuristics – Decision-making processes in social environments

Imitation – Behaviour in which an individual observes and replicates another's behaviour
Tit for tat – English saying meaning "equivalent retaliation"
Wisdom of the crowd – Collective perception of a group of people




= Epistemic heuristics

=

Propositional attitude – Concept in epistemology
Essence – That which makes or defines an entity what it is
Analysis – Process of understanding a complex topic or substance
Falsifiability – Property of a statement that can be logically contradicted
Hierarchy of evidence – Heuristic ranking science research results




= Behavioral economics

=

Affect heuristic – Mental shortcut based on emotion
Feedback – Process where information about current status is used to influence future status
Reinforcement – Consequence affecting an organism's future behavior
Stimulus–response model – Conceptual framework in psychology




= Others

=
Satisficing – Cognitive heuristic of searching for an acceptable decision
Representativeness heuristic – Tool for assisting judgement in uncertainty
Availability heuristic – Bias towards recently acquired information
Awareness – Perception or knowledge of something
Base and superstructure – Model of society in Marxist theory
Social organism – Model of social interactions
Dialectic – Method of reasoning via argumentation and contradiction
Continuum limit – Continuum limit in lattice models
Johari window – Technique in personality development
Social rationality
Desert (philosophy) – Condition of being deserving of something, whether good or bad
Less-is-better effect – Cognitive bias
Minimalist heuristic
Unification of theories in physics – Idea of connecting all of physics into one set of equations
Backward induction – Process of reasoning backwards in sequence




= Meta-heuristic

=

Optimality
Survival of the fittest – Phrase to describe the mechanism of natural selection
Mechanical equilibrium – When the net force on a particle is zero
Chemical equilibrium – When the ratio of reactants to products of a chemical reaction is constant with time
Homeostasis – State of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
Entropy – Property of a thermodynamic system




History



George Polya studied and published on heuristics in 1945. Polya (1945) cites Pappus of Alexandria as having written a text that Polya dubs Heuristic. Pappus' heuristic problem-solving methods consist of analysis and synthesis.




= Notable

=



Figures

George Polya
Herbert A. Simon
Daniel Kahneman
Amos Tversky
Gerd Gigerenzer
Judea Pearl
Robin Dunbar
David Perkins Page
Herbert Spencer
Charles Alexander McMurry
Frank Morton McMurry
Lawrence Zalcman
Imre Lakatos
William C. Wimsatt
Alan Hodgkin
Andrew Huxley



Works

Meno
How to solve it
Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning




= Contemporary

=
The study of heuristics in human decision-making was developed in the 1970s and the 1980s, by the psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, although the concept had been originally introduced by the Nobel laureate Herbert A. Simon. Simon's original primary object of research was problem solving that showed that we operate within what he calls bounded rationality. He coined the term satisficing, which denotes a situation in which people seek solutions, or accept choices or judgements, that are "good enough" for their purposes although they could be optimised.
Rudolf Groner analysed the history of heuristics from its roots in ancient Greece up to contemporary work in cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence, proposing a cognitive style "heuristic versus algorithmic thinking", which can be assessed by means of a validated questionnaire.




= Adaptive toolbox

=
The adaptive toolbox contains strategies for fabricating heuristic devices. The core mental capacities are recall (memory), frequency, object permanence, and imitation. Gerd Gigerenzer and his research group argued that models of heuristics need to be formal to allow for predictions of behavior that can be tested. They study the fast and frugal heuristics in the "adaptive toolbox" of individuals or institutions, and the ecological rationality of these heuristics; that is, the conditions under which a given heuristic is likely to be successful. The descriptive study of the "adaptive toolbox" is done by observation and experiment, while the prescriptive study of ecological rationality requires mathematical analysis and computer simulation. Heuristics – such as the recognition heuristic, the take-the-best heuristic and fast-and-frugal trees – have been shown to be effective in predictions, particularly in situations of uncertainty. It is often said that heuristics trade accuracy for effort but this is only the case in situations of risk. Risk refers to situations where all possible actions, their outcomes and probabilities are known. In the absence of this information, that is under uncertainty, heuristics can achieve higher accuracy with lower effort. This finding, known as a less-is-more effect, would not have been found without formal models. The valuable insight of this program is that heuristics are effective not despite their simplicity – but because of it. Furthermore, Gigerenzer and Wolfgang Gaissmaier found that both individuals and organisations rely on heuristics in an adaptive way.




= Cognitive-experiential self-theory

=
Heuristics, through greater refinement and research, have begun to be applied to other theories, or be explained by them. For example, the cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST) is also an adaptive view of heuristic processing. CEST breaks down two systems that process information. At some times, roughly speaking, individuals consider issues rationally, systematically, logically, deliberately, effortfully, and verbally. On other occasions, individuals consider issues intuitively, effortlessly, globally, and emotionally. From this perspective, heuristics are part of a larger experiential processing system that is often adaptive, but vulnerable to error in situations that require logical analysis.




= Attribute substitution

=
In 2002, Daniel Kahneman and Shane Frederick proposed that cognitive heuristics work by a process called attribute substitution, which happens without conscious awareness. According to this theory, when somebody makes a judgement (of a "target attribute") that is computationally complex, a more easily calculated "heuristic attribute" is substituted. In effect, a cognitively difficult problem is dealt with by answering a rather simpler problem, without being aware of this happening. This theory explains cases where judgements fail to show regression toward the mean. Heuristics can be considered to reduce the complexity of clinical judgments in health care.




Academic disciplines






= Psychology

=

In psychology, heuristics are simple, efficient rules, either learned or inculcated by evolutionary processes. These psychological heuristics have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgements, and solve problems. These rules typically come into play when people face complex problems or incomplete information. Researchers employ various methods to test whether people use these rules. The rules have been shown to work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases can lead to systematic errors or cognitive biases.




= Philosophy

=
A heuristic device is used when an entity X exists to enable understanding of, or knowledge concerning, some other entity Y.
A good example is a model that, as it is never identical with what it models, is a heuristic device to enable understanding of what it models. Stories, metaphors, etc., can also be termed heuristic in this sense. A classic example is the notion of utopia as described in Plato's best-known work, The Republic. This means that the "ideal city" as depicted in The Republic is not given as something to be pursued, or to present an orientation-point for development. Rather, it shows how things would have to be connected, and how one thing would lead to another (often with highly problematic results), if one opted for certain principles and carried them through rigorously.
Heuristic is also often used as a noun to describe a rule of thumb, procedure, or method. Philosophers of science have emphasised the importance of heuristics in creative thought and the construction of scientific theories. Seminal works include Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and others by Imre Lakatos, Lindley Darden, and William C. Wimsatt.




= Law

=
In legal theory, especially in the theory of law and economics, heuristics are used in the law when case-by-case analysis would be impractical, insofar as "practicality" is defined by the interests of a governing body.
The present securities regulation regime largely assumes that all investors act as perfectly rational persons. In truth, actual investors face cognitive limitations from biases, heuristics, and framing effects. For instance, in all states in the United States the legal drinking age for unsupervised persons is 21 years, because it is argued that people need to be mature enough to make decisions involving the risks of alcohol consumption. However, assuming people mature at different rates, the specific age of 21 would be too late for some and too early for others. In this case, the somewhat arbitrary delineation is used because it is impossible or impractical to tell whether an individual is sufficiently mature for society to trust them with that kind of responsibility. Some proposed changes, however, have included the completion of an alcohol education course rather than the attainment of 21 years of age as the criterion for legal alcohol possession. This would put youth alcohol policy more on a case-by-case basis and less on a heuristic one, since the completion of such a course would presumably be voluntary and not uniform across the population.
The same reasoning applies to patent law. Patents are justified on the grounds that inventors must be protected so they have incentive to invent. It is therefore argued that it is in society's best interest that inventors receive a temporary government-granted monopoly on their idea, so that they can recoup investment costs and make economic profit for a limited period. In the United States, the length of this temporary monopoly is 20 years from the date the patent application was filed, though the monopoly does not actually begin until the application has matured into a patent. However, like the drinking age problem above, the specific length of time would need to be different for every product to be efficient. A 20-year term is used because it is difficult to tell what the number should be for any individual patent. More recently, some, including University of North Dakota law professor Eric E. Johnson, have argued that patents in different kinds of industries – such as software patents – should be protected for different lengths of time.




= Artificial intelligence

=
The bias–variance tradeoff gives insight into describing the less-is-more strategy. A heuristic can be used in artificial intelligence systems while searching a solution space. The heuristic is derived by using some function that is put into the system by the designer, or by adjusting the weight of branches based on how likely each branch is to lead to a goal node.




= Behavioural economics

=
Heuristics refers to the cognitive shortcuts that individuals use to simplify decision-making processes in economic situations. Behavioral economics is a field that integrates insights from psychology and economics to better understand how people make decisions.
Anchoring and adjustment is one of the most extensively researched heuristics in behavioural economics. Anchoring is the tendency of people to make future judgements or conclusions based too heavily on the original information supplied to them. This initial knowledge functions as an anchor, and it can influence future judgements even if the anchor is entirely unrelated to the decisions at hand. Adjustment, on the other hand, is the process through which individuals make gradual changes to their initial judgements or conclusions.
Anchoring and adjustment has been observed in a wide range of decision-making contexts, including financial decision-making, consumer behavior, and negotiation. Researchers have identified a number of strategies that can be used to mitigate the effects of anchoring and adjustment, including providing multiple anchors, encouraging individuals to generate alternative anchors, and providing cognitive prompts to encourage more deliberative decision-making.
Other heuristics studied in behavioral economics include the representativeness heuristic, which refers to the tendency of individuals to categorize objects or events based on how similar they are to typical examples, and the availability heuristic, which refers to the tendency of individuals to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily it comes to mind.




Stereotyping


Stereotyping is a type of heuristic that people use to form opinions or make judgements about things they have never seen or experienced. They work as a mental shortcut to assess everything from the social status of a person (based on their actions), to classifying a plant as a tree based on it being tall, having a trunk, and that it has leaves (even though the person making the evaluation might never have seen that particular type of tree before).
Stereotypes, as first described by journalist Walter Lippmann in his book Public Opinion (1922), are the pictures we have in our heads that are built around experiences as well as what we are told about the world.




See also



ACT-R – SoftwarePages displaying short descriptions with no spaces
Algorithm – Sequence of operations for a task
Applied epistemology – Application of epistemology in specific fields
Branch and bound – Optimization by eliminating non optimal solutions to sub-problems
Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy) – Thought experiment, to justify Bayesian probabilityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Decision theory – Branch of applied probability theory
Embodied cognition – Interdisciplinary theory
Failure mode and effects analysis – Analysis of potential system failures
Game theory – Mathematical models of strategic interactions
Heuristic-systematic model of information processing
Heuristics in judgment and decision-making – Simple strategies or mental processes involved in making quick decisionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Ideal type – Typological term
List of biases in judgment and decision making
Metalepsis – Figure of speech
Methodic school – School of medicine in ancient Greece and Rome
Necessity and sufficiency – Terms to describe a conditional relationship between two statements
Neuroheuristics
Nudge theory – Concept in behavioral economics, political theory and behavioral sciences
Predictive coding – Theory of brain function
Principle of good enough – Principle of social research
Priority heuristic
Prospect theory – Theory of behavioral economics
Rule-based system – Type of computer system
Rule of inference – Systematic logical process capable of deriving a conclusion from hypotheses
SCAMPER – SCAMPER is an acronym for the creative development process proposed by Alex Faickney Osborn.
Situated cognition – theory that posits that knowing is inseparable from doing by arguing that all knowledge is situated in activity bound to social, cultural and physical contextsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Maltese Dr. Edward de Bono
Social heuristics – Decision-making processes in social environments
Subjective expected utility – Concept in decision theory
Thought experiment – Hypothetical situation
TRIZ – Problem-solving tools
Tutorial – Type of educational intervention




References






Further reading


How To Solve It: Modern Heuristics, Zbigniew Michalewicz and David B. Fogel, Springer Verlag, 2000. ISBN 3-540-66061-5
Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 9780134610993. LCCN 20190474.
The Problem of Thinking Too Much Archived 2013-10-19 at the Wayback Machine, 11 December 2002, Persi Diaconis

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• 论文里常常用到的 heuristically 这个词，直观上怎么理解呢？ - 知乎
• 知乎 - 有问题，就会有答案

谁能科普一下心理学里的启发式（Heuristic）？ - 知乎

我们第一次看到Heuristic的时候，大概都是在心理学导论里面的问题解决部分，通常被定义为是一种“触发式的，依靠直觉的，快速的但是可能会犯错的问题解决方式"，通常用于解决一些看上去比较脑筋急转弯式的问题，例如那个“池子里每天开的花是前一天的 ...

Heuristic Algorithm是什么意思？ - 知乎

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贪心算法 启发式算法 近似算法 区别？ - 知乎

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“Heuristic”一词在学术文献中代表什么意义？ - 知乎

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请问metaheuristic和heuristic有什么区别？ - 知乎

Nov 17, 2020 · heuristic是找到可行解，meta-hueristic是在hueristic找到解的基础上搜索或优化，不断调整一些东西来找到这些解集合里面更好的结果，或者基于这个解修改以期得到更好的解，也就是说meta-hueristic需要先有hueristic，然后基于此优化。

论文里常常用到的 heuristically 这个词，直观上怎么理解呢？ - 知乎

中文翻译过来是“启发式的”，论文里常常说提出了一种启发式的算法，什么样的算法是启发式的算法呢？

知乎 - 有问题，就会有答案

启发式算法的设计和应用中，很多方法具有相似性。[END]> <|ipynb_marker|> END OF DOC