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- Language contact - Wikipedia
- Definition and Examples of Language Contact - ThoughtCo
- Language Contact - University of Michigan
- Definition and Examples of Contact Languages - ThoughtCo
- Introduction (Chapter 1) - Language Contact
- LANGUAGE CHANGE AND LANGUAGE CONTACT
- LANGUAGE CONTACT IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS - Academia.edu
- Language Contact - Linguistics - Oxford Bibliographies
- Language Contact - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
- The Handbook of Language Contact | Wiley Online Books
language contact
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Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties interact with and influence each other. The study of language contact is called contact linguistics. Language contact can occur at language borders, between adstratum languages, or as the result of migration, with an intrusive language acting as either a superstratum or a substratum.
When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Intensive language contact may result in language convergence or relexification. In some cases a new contact language may be created as a result of the influence, such as a pidgin, creole, or mixed language. In many other cases, contact between speakers occurs with smaller-scale lasting effects on the language; these may include the borrowing of loanwords, calques, or other types of linguistic material.
Multilingualism has been common throughout much of human history, and today most people in the world are multilingual. Multilingual speakers may engage in code-switching, the use of multiple languages in a single conversation.
Methods from sociolinguistics (the study of language use in society), from corpus linguistics and from formal linguistics are used in the study of language contact.
Borrowing
= Borrowing of vocabulary items
=The most common way that languages influence each other is the exchange of words. Much is made about the contemporary borrowing of English words into other languages, but this phenomenon is not new, and it is not very large by historical standards. The large-scale importation of words from Latin, French and other languages into English in the 16th and the 17th centuries was more significant.
Some languages have borrowed so much that they have become scarcely recognisable. Armenian borrowed so many words from Iranian languages, for example, that it was at first considered a divergent branch of the Indo-Iranian languages and was not recognised as an independent branch of the Indo-European languages for many decades.
= Borrowing of other language features
=The influence can go deeper, extending to the exchange of even basic characteristics of a language such as morphology and grammar.
Newar, for example, spoken in Nepal, is a Sino-Tibetan language distantly related to Chinese but has had so many centuries of contact with neighbouring Indo-Iranian languages that it has even developed noun inflection, a trait that is typical of the Indo-European family but rare in Sino-Tibetan. Newar has also absorbed grammatical features like verb tenses.
Also, Romanian was influenced by the Slavic languages that were spoken by neighbouring tribes in the centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire not only in vocabulary but also phonology. English has a few phrases, adapted from French, in which the adjective follows the noun: court-martial, attorney-general, Lake Superior.
Direction of influence
= Linguistic hegemony
=A language's influence widens as its speakers grow in power. Chinese, Greek, Latin, Portuguese, French, Spanish, Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, Russian, German and English have each seen periods of widespread importance and have had varying degrees of influence on the native languages spoken in the areas over which they have held sway.
Especially during and since the 1990s, the internet, along with previous influences such as radio and television, telephone communication and printed materials, has expanded and changed the many ways in which languages can be influenced by each other and by technology.
= Non-mutual influence
=Change as a result of contact is often one-sided. Chinese, for instance, has had a profound effect on the development of Japanese, but Chinese remains relatively free of Japanese influence other than some modern terms that were reborrowed after they were coined in Japan and based on Chinese forms and using Chinese characters. In India, Hindi and other native languages have been influenced by English, and loanwords from English are part of everyday vocabulary.
= Mutual influence
=In some cases, language contact may lead to mutual exchange, but that may be confined to a particular geographic region. For example, in Switzerland, the local French has been influenced by German and vice versa. In Scotland, Scots has been heavily influenced by English, and many Scots terms have been adopted into the regional English dialect.
Outcomes of language contact
= Language shift
=The result of the contact of two languages can be the replacement of one by the other. This is most common when one language has a higher social position (prestige). This sometimes leads to language endangerment or extinction.
= Stratal influence
=When language shift occurs, the language that is replaced (known as the substratum) can leave a profound impression on the replacing language (known as the superstratum) when people retain features of the substratum as they learn the new language and pass these features on to their children, which leads to the development of a new variety. For example, the Latin that came to replace local languages in present-day France during Ancient Rome times was influenced by Gaulish and Germanic. The distinct pronunciation of the Hiberno-English dialect, spoken in Ireland, comes partially from the influence of the substratum of Irish.
Outside the Indo-European family, Coptic, the last stage of ancient Egyptian, is a substratum of Egyptian Arabic.
= Creation of new languages: creolization and mixed languages
=Language contact can also lead to the development of new languages when people without a common language interact closely. Resulting from this contact a pidgin may develop, which may eventually become a full-fledged creole language through the process of creolization (though some linguists assert that a creole need not emerge from a pidgin). Prime examples of this are Aukan and Saramaccan, spoken in Suriname, which have vocabulary mainly from Portuguese, English and Dutch.
A much rarer but still observed process, according to some linguists, is the formation of mixed languages. Whereas creoles are formed by communities lacking a common language, mixed languages are formed by communities fluent in both languages. They tend to inherit much more of the complexity (grammatical, phonological, etc.) of their parent languages, whereas creoles begin as simple languages and then develop in complexity more independently. It is sometimes explained as bilingual communities that no longer identify with the cultures of either of the languages they speak, and seek to develop their own language as an expression of their own cultural uniqueness.
= Dialectal and sub-cultural change
=Some forms of language contact affect only a particular segment of a speech community. Consequently, change may be manifested only in particular dialects, jargons, or registers. South African English, for example, has been significantly affected by Afrikaans in terms of lexis and pronunciation, but the other dialects of English have remained almost totally unaffected by Afrikaans other than a few loanwords.
In some cases, a language develops an acrolect that contains elements of a more prestigious language. For example, in England during a large part of the Middle Ages, upper-class speech was dramatically influenced by French to the point that it often resembled a French dialect.
The broader study of contact varieties within a society is called linguistic ecology.
Sign languages
= Contact between sign languages
=Language contact can take place between two or more sign languages, and the expected contact phenomena occur: lexical borrowing, foreign "accent", interference, code switching, pidgins, creoles, and mixed systems.
= Contact between sign languages and oral languages
=Language contact is extremely common in most deaf communities, which are almost always located within a dominant oral language culture. However, between a sign language and an oral language, even if lexical borrowing and code switching also occur, the interface between the oral and signed modes produces unique phenomena: fingerspelling, fingerspelling/sign combination, initialisation, CODA talk, TDD conversation, mouthing and contact signing.
See also
References
= Notes
== General references
=Kata Kunci Pencarian: language contact
language contact
Daftar Isi
Language contact - Wikipedia
Language contact can also lead to the development of new languages when people without a common language interact closely. Resulting from this contact a pidgin may develop, which may eventually become a full-fledged creole language through the process of creolization (though some linguists assert that a creole need not emerge from a pidgin).
Definition and Examples of Language Contact - ThoughtCo
Jan 20, 2020 · A probably more realistic view held in language contact research is that whatever kind of material is transferred in a situation of language contact, this material necessarily experiences some sort of modification through contact." —Peter Siemund, "Language Contact: Constraints and Common Paths of Contact-Induced Language Change."
Language Contact - University of Michigan
innumerable other situations around the world. But although recognizing language contact in such obvious cases is easy, de ning it precisely is more di cult, for several reasons. In the simplest de nition, language contact is the use of more than one language in the same place at the same time.
Definition and Examples of Contact Languages - ThoughtCo
Nov 20, 2019 · A probably more realistic view held in language contact research is that whatever kind of material is transferred in a situation of language contact, this material necessarily experiences some sort of modification through contact." (Peter Siemund, "Language Contact" in Language Contact and Contact Languages, ed. by P. Siemund and N. Kintana ...
Introduction (Chapter 1) - Language Contact
Jun 5, 2012 · The study of language contact. Manifestations of language contact are found in a great variety of domains, including language acquisition, language processing and production, conversation and discourse, social functions of language and language policy, typology and language change, and more.
LANGUAGE CHANGE AND LANGUAGE CONTACT
predicting what kinds of contact-induced changes will occur when. Before turning to a detailed discussion of the issues that arise in this area, we need a de nition of contact-induced language change: Contact is a cause of ‘any linguistic change that would have been less likely to occur outside a particular contact situation’ (Thomason 2001 ...
LANGUAGE CONTACT IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS - Academia.edu
Language contact can occur at language borders, between adstratum languages, or as the result of migration, with a “disturbing” language acting as either a superstratum or a sub-stratum. Language contact occurs in a variety of phenomena, including language convergence and borrowing. The most common products are code-switching and mixed ...
Language Contact - Linguistics - Oxford Bibliographies
Aug 31, 2022 · Language contact: An introduction. Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press. A very accessible overview of the field, with an emphasis on historical linguistics. This book is probably the most appropriate textbook for an undergraduate or beginning-level graduate course on language contact or historical linguistics. Winford, D. 2003.
Language Contact - Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Language contact occurs when speakers of different languages interact and their languages in uence one another. Drawing on the author ...
The Handbook of Language Contact | Wiley Online Books
Jul 28, 2020 · The second edition of the definitive reference on contact studies and linguistic change—provides extensive new research and original case studies Language contact is a dynamic area of contemporary linguistic research that studies how language changes when speakers of different languages interact. Accessibly structured into three sections, The …