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- Mountain Formation - (Intro to Geology) - Vocab, Definition
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Mountain formation occurs due to a variety of geological processes associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates). Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the geological structures found on it.
From the late 18th century until its replacement by plate tectonics in the 1960s, geosyncline theory was used to explain much mountain-building. The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology, and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called neotectonics.
Types of mountains
There are five main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, plateau, fault-block, and dome. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories.
= Volcanic mountains
=Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A volcanic arc system is a series of volcanoes that form near a subduction zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.
Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes.
A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone because of the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of angle of repose.) A composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°), because of the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Examples include Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro, Mount Fuji, Mount Shasta, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier.
= Fold mountains
=When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is, ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. While volcanic arcs form at oceanic-continental plate boundaries, folding occurs at continental-continental plate boundaries. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.
= Block mountains
=When a fault block is raised or tilted, a block mountain can result. Higher blocks are called horsts, and troughs are called grabens. A spreading apart of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.
An example is the Sierra Nevada range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.
Another example is the Rila–Rhodope massif in Bulgaria, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain—a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of the Struma and Mesta rivers.
= Uplifted passive margins
=Unlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, eastern Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands, or Australia's Great Dividing Range.
Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view elevated passive margins can be likened to giant anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).
Models
= Hotspot volcanoes
=Hotspots are supplied by a magma source in the Earth's mantle called a mantle plume. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence belies this connection. The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.
= Fault blocks
=Several movements of the Earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with faults. These movements actually are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the forces of isostasy. Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today's kinematic and flexural models.
See also
3D fold evolution
Continental collision – Phenomenon in which mountains can be produced on the boundaries of converging tectonic plates
Cycle of erosion – Model of geographic landscape evolution
Inselberg – Isolated, steep rock hill on relatively flat terrain
Seamount – Mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water's surface
References
External links
NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory
NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory: Volcanology Research
Rotating globe showing areas of earthquake activity
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Mountain formation - Wikipedia
Mountain formation occurs due to a variety of geological processes associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates). [1] Folding , faulting , volcanic activity , igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. [ 2 ]
How Are Mountains Formed? - WorldAtlas
Nov 20, 2020 · Mountains are formed by movement within the Earth’s crust. The crust itself is made up of several large plates, called tectonic plates, which are free floating. These huge chunks of the Earth’s crust move within molten rock called …
Mountain Building (Orogenesis) : Geology, Formation - Geology …
Dec 8, 2023 · Mountain building, also known as orogenesis, is a geological process that involves the formation and uplift of large, elevated landforms, known as mountains. These landforms are typically characterized by steep slopes, high elevations, and rugged terrain.
10.2: Mountain Formation - Geosciences LibreTexts
Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the earth’s crust (plate tectonics). Mountain formation is related to plate tectonics.
Mountain Formation | Earth Science - Lumen Learning
Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the earth’s crust (plate tectonics). Mountain formation is related to plate tectonics.
Mountain Building: How Mountains are Made
When two plate tectonics collide, mountains form. Mountains are dynamic natural features, sculpted over millions of years by the relentless forces of Earth’s geological processes.
Mountain Formation: How Are Mountains Created?
Mountains are formed through various geological processes such as plate tectonics, volcanic activity, erosion, compression, and tension. Plate tectonics play a crucial role in the formation of mountains by the movement and collision of tectonic plates.
How do mountains form? - Live Science
Nov 12, 2023 · Mountains are born in a number of ways, many of which are linked to Earth's tectonic plates. When these giant slabs of rocks collide, their edges can buckle and fold, which forces rock up to form...
How Do Mountains Form? - HowStuffWorks
Nov 7, 2023 · How Are Mountains Formed? Understanding Geological Formations: The Appalachians; Mountain Ranges in the Himalayas; Other Ways Mountains Form
Mountain Formation - (Intro to Geology) - Vocab, Definition
Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that lead to the creation of mountains, primarily through tectonic activities. This can involve the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, resulting in processes like folding, faulting, and volcanic activity.