• Source: Archaeological heritage of Armenia

2.6 million years before present (hereinafter-Myr) the Hominids called Homo habilis living in East Africa, made ancient stone tools called choppers by chipping the edges of river stones. From that moment the Lower Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) culture began.




Paleolithic Armenia


The diverse landscape of the Armenian Highland was exceptionally favorable for the habitation of hominids of the Paleolithic Homo species. Here the necessary raw materials for the creation of stone tools were available: andesite, dacite, obsidian, as well as a
rich variety of hunting animals and vegetable food, including wide
variety of poaceae family plants, countless fresh springs, rivers and
creeks, which fulfilled the demand for drinking water anywhere in
the Highland.
In the last decades, several dozen sites of the Early Old Stone
Age (Black Cross, Kurtan, etc.), and ancient assemblages of stone
tools (Oldowan and Acheulian type of choppers, sharp edges tools,
massive hand cutters with bilateral finishing) have been discovered
in the north of Armenia. The results of uranium-lead isotope decomposition
indicate, that the absolute age of the early Acheulian
cultural layers is 1,85-1,77 Myr. These are the oldest evidences of
the existence of Homo erectus in the Eurasian vast region.
In the late Acheulian (500-300 thousand years before present,
hereinafter - Thyr) Armenia, tools (bifaces), hand axes, were found,
made of double-sided pieces of obsidian and dacite, leaf-shaped,
with sharp, symmetrical edges, the thick part of the base of the
tools adapted to the human palm. To the North of Armenia, in the
foothills of the volcanic Javahk mountain range, around 30 ancient
sites of the Old Stone Age were discovered: Blagodarnoe, Noramut,
etc., in one of which a cultural layer was uncovered, which
contained not only bifaces, but also the entire collection of their
preparatory materials: cores, flakes, blades and other small items,
that testify the complete cycle of tool making at the site. The regular
shapes, fine transverse section and careful finishing of the cutting
edges of the Acheulian hand-axes made of dacite, indicate, that
their main group dates back to the Late Acheulian epoch (500-250
Thyr).
Late Acheulian finds were also discovered in the Hrazdan river
valley (Arzni, Nurnus, Satani Dar, Erkar Blur, Gutanasar, Jraber, Hatis, etc.), on the southwestern slopes of Artin
Mountain and the Aragats massif (Satani Dar,
Dashtadem).
The number of tools made by the Neanderthals,
the most advanced of the hominids found in
the Late Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic (250-40
Thyr) Armenia, reaches to thousands. In the middle
phase of the Lower Paleolithic period, the Neanderthals
lived in caves near rivers (Yerevan 1, Lusakert
1–2, Arzni, Hovk, Kalavan, Aghitu, etc.) and in
high plateaus (southern slopes of Aragats: Dashtadem,
Arteni, Syunik –at the foot of Amulsar and
elsewhere). The Expedition of the Research Center
of Historical and Cultural Heritage discovered
late Acheulian bifaces in 2012–2021, in the south
of the Republic of Armenia, in Syunik region, at
the headwaters of Vorotan, on a plateau 2200–2300
m above the sea level. Throughout the whole 5 km
long and 2–3 km wide upland area there are tens of
thousands of obsidian cores, tools, rubble and fragments
typical of the Late Acheulian, Middle and
Upper Palaeolithic era.
Armenia is one of those places where in 120-
100 Thyr inhabitation processes took place (Nor
Geghi 1, Aghavnatun, Bagratashen). In the Late
Stone Age, 60-40 Thyr a number of caves were inhabited
(Yerevan 1, Lusakert, Barozh). During the
last (Vyrumyan) glacial period, there were harsh
climatic conditions in the Armenian Highland, as a
result of which the traces of human-Homo Sapiens
activities are small in number (Aghitu - 35-24 Thyr
and Kalavan 1 - 18-16 Thyr).




Neolithic and Chalcolithic (Aeneolitic) Periods in Armenia


In 12 thousand years before present, after the
end of the (Vyurmyan) Ice Age and the melting of
the glaciers along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean
- in the Levant, on the slopes of the Eastern
Taurus Mountains and in the northern Mesopotamia,
which were rich in hunting animals and poaceae
family plants, the hunter-gatherer groups began
to cultivate these plants and tame animals. The
territory stretching from Eastern Taurus up to the
Greater Caucasus Range, which separates the Middle East from the Eurasian Steppe, is an environment of sharp
relief variations, cut by high mountain ranges. At its center the
Armenian Highland is located, the favorable climatic conditions
of which enabled the local inhabitants to continue their hunting
and gathering lifestyle, at the same time being engaged in animal
husbandry and food cultivation.
The presence of exceptionally rich resources of obsidian in
the Highland predetermined the culture of Armenia in the Neolithic
period (New Stone Age). The obsidian in Arteni, Hatis and
Nemrut mountains, in the Vorotan river basin, Kotayk plateau
and in other mines was not only processed in the local area,
but was also exported in large quantities to neighboring regions,
particularly to south-west Asia. A huge number of artifacts were
made from obsidian: agricultural and production tools, ritual
objects, weapons and jewelry. In Mesopotamia and in other
valley regions, the bartering of highly demanded obsidian and
primitive trade facilitated the accumulation of wealth and economic
stratification among communities and later among larger
social units. One of the important routes was the movement of
the Syunik obsidian from the ancient site of Godedzor to the
basin of Lake Urmia and to other valley regions of the Ubaid
culture.
About 7000 years BC a groups of settlements were formed
in the Ararat valley, near the left-bank tributaries of the Araks River. Among them are the monuments Aratashen, Masis Blur (hill) and Aknashen, which were investigated within the framework of international archeological programs. These sites, especially Aknashen, are connected with the Shulaveri–Shomu culture that flourished in South Caucasus from about 6000 BC onward.
These late Neolithic villages consisted of densely built clusters
of houses and of other structures. The majority of buildings
built of clay and mud (unfired) bricks had a round or oval floorplan.
The inhabitants cultivated several types of wheat, barley
and lentils, raised sheep, goats and cattle, were engaged in hunting
and fishing.
The excavations resulted in the discovery of a large number
of artefacts skillfully made from obsidian, river stone, bone, antler
and shell, which were used for processing wood and fur and
sewing clothes from wool and leather.
Two important productions were introduced into Armenia's
late Neolithic economy: pottery and copper mining. The latter
was one of the first steps of mankind in metal processing. In the
6th millennium BC collections, the local rough products dominated.
High-quality, colorful vessels were also found, belonging
to the Halaf style and were probably imported from Northern Mesopotamia. The jewelries, mainly beads, were also made
of copper and became the first metal artefacts known to us
(Choyunyu tepesi). Copper jewelries and artistic pottery led
to the development of a new type of long-distance trade. Specialized
craft centers now became important raw material
supplying regions.




The Chalcolithic (also Eneolithic) period


The Chalcolithic (or Eneolithic) period in South-West Asia began in 5500-5200 BC and lasted for about two millennia until 3500 BC. It is characterized by the development of coppersmithing, although stone tools were still dominant in the economy.
In the last four decades, many Chalcolithic
settlements were discovered throughout the territory of modern
Armenia. Four of which- Adablur and Teghut in the Ararat
Valley, Areni-1 in Vayots Dzor, Godedzor in Syunik, have
been partially excavated. All of them date back to 4500-3400
BC.
Teghut was a small herders’ village involved in animal
husbandry, consisting of semi-earthen, round foorplan huts.
High quality pottery, as well as copper tools imported from
other places, were found here. Adablur was obviously bigger.
This settlement consisted of large, multi-room complexes that
stretched along the streets. Remains of workshops and clay
sculptures were found here.
The dry environment and stable temperature of the Areni-
1 cave in the Arpa river gorge created excellent conditions
for the preservation of organic materials. Grain, fruit, cloth,
leather and even grass, that were usually not preserved elsewhere,
led us into an unknown world of artifacts, created
during the Chalcolithic period. Unique is the oldest known
winepress in the world, dating back to 4000 BC and the ancient
leather shoe dating back to 3600 BC, found in the depth
of the Areni cave.
Godedzor is located in an area of high mountain, alpine
pastures. It was an important checkpoint and exchange center
for mobile herdsman. Here, was accumulated the obsidian,
brought from the mines located on the distance of two or three
days’ walk, and was then exported. The signs on the seals that
were put on clay, testify the existence of private, most likely
family property marking tradition.




Armenia in the Early Bronze Age (3500-2400 BC)



In the middle of the IV millennium BC, a unique culture was
formed in Armenia, as well as some adjacent areas, which became known in archaeology as the Kura–Araxes culture. The earliest evidence for this culture is found on the Ararat plain. It survived for more than a millennium and, developing, covered a vast territory extending from the
North Caucasus (Chechnya) to Israel (Dead Sea), from Eastern
Asia Minor (Amid) to Central Iran (Godin Tepe) having the Armenian
Highland at its core -particularly the Ararat valley and
the foothills near it.
The Armenian civilization, attested in the
territories of 12 modern states, is known to the scientific world
under various names. Among which, the most widespread are
the denominations Kur-Araks (Kura–Araxes) and Shengavit. This civilization is
characterized by an agricultural sedentary economy, with more
than a thousand settlements densely covering the fertile riverside
valleys, high plateaus and high mountain zones of the Armenian
Highland and neighbouring regions.
The Early Bronze Age artificial
hill-settlements were characterized by multiple cultural layers,
which in some places spread to tens of meters (Mokhrablur
of Nakhijevan, Norsun-Tepe).
The economy was based on irrigated agriculture and cattle
raising. Probably, it was at this period, that the huge irrigation
systems built on the slopes of Aragats and Geghama mountains
were formed and at the sources of canals, artificial water pools
and springs, huge dragon stones (vishapakar) made from onepiece
basalt, typical of Armenian culture, were erected. Extremely
plentiful were the flint inserts for sickles, work tools made of
bone, obsidian and river stones.
Another prerequisite for unprecedented
economic development was copper production. A large
number of weapon and tools made of arsenical bronze are attested
by both the finds treasures near Yerevan and the stone and
clay molds found in various ancient sites of Shengavit civilization
(Shengavit, Margahovit, etc.). In the Shengavit ancient site,
weight standards, similar to those used in the Levant, were found,
which testify the Armenia's involvement in the newly formed international
trade relations in the Early Bronze Age.
Diverse types of weapons are found: arrows, daggers, battle
axes, spears and other weapons made of obsidian, flint, bone and
bronze.
Mudbrick architecture was characteristic of this culture. The
mudbrick made from sandy clay, with the help of mold forms
and dried in the sun, was the main building material from which walls, temples, residential and economic buildings, hydro-engineering
structures were built. The foundations of the houses were
made of river stones, cracked or unprocessed basalt (Shengavit,
Harich, Karaz, Amiranisgora, etc.), on which mudbrick walls
were raised. Round buildings with a diameter of 4–10 m and rectangular
floorplan were widespread. The latter had a flat, log roof,
and the buildings with round floorplan had primitive roofs of
“hazarashen” type, covered with clay mudbricks with reed, with
a skylights hole in the centre of the roof, that solved the issues of
light and ventilation of the house (Shengavit, Mokhrablur).
The
floors were of rammed earth. There were also plaster covered,
up to 10 cm thick (Shengavit) and red painted (Garakepek-Tepe)
floors. There are found samples of attempts to enliven the monotonous
clay walls with decoration and with shaped arrangement of
bricks of different color and to enlighten the monotonous appearance
of the walls with various colors (Shengavit, Mokhrablur in
Nakhijevan, Yanik-tepe, etc.).
Among the settlements with an area of 1-10 ha, the central
ones were surrounded by fortified walls built of stone (Shengavit,
Garni, Persi, Khorenia-Javakhk) and of mud-brick (Mokhrablur,
Goy-tepe, Gudaberteke), with artificial puddles (Norabats,
Kvatskhelebi, Khizannat-gora). Noteworthy is the fortified wall
of Shengavit with its stone foundations, reinforced with rectangular
masonry walls and a tiled secret passage leading to Hrazdan
river. The central urban areas, which are characterized by dense
construction (Shengavit, Mokhrablur, etc.), were surrounded by
satellite-residences.
The bearers of the Shengavit culture had a complex religious
system. In the central part of the Mokhrablur settlement, in the III
construction horizon, a volume-spatial creation was uncovered: a
structure-tower with a rectangular plan (7,4x5,5 m) constructed
with hard tuff, in the eastern part of which a 3,9 m long one-piece
basalt altar was placed. Near this stone structure, clay buildings
and ash pits were uncovered, in which the ashes of the sacred
hearths had been accumulated.
Many tufa idols, clay hearths were excavated in the Shengavit
settlement.
In 2012 year a complex cult system was excavated-a
room with a rectangular plan, designed specifically for ritual ceremonies,
inside which a clay altar was uncovered decorated with
relief ornaments on its front. A statue of an idol was affixed into
the altar and goblets for libation were placed in front of the heart.
To the right from the stairs leading to the semisubterranean room
of the shrine, two clay–packed basins were found, in which the
ashes from the sacred fire were kept. A phallic pendant-idol was
found in the shrine, which was probably the identifying symbol
of the priestess. The adjacent room of the complex reflects household
activities.
A similar cultic complex was found at the ancient
site of Pulur (Sakyol). (This location was later flooded by the Keban Dam). Inside the religious structures, in front of the altars, terracotta
cult hearths were located, which were unique to the Shengavit
culture, with a diameter of up to one meter, the edges of the inner
space resembled a ship bow divided into three parts, the upper
platforms were red-painted and decorated with geometric figures.
Statuette of women and men, as well as of worship animals,
such as horses, bulls and rams were found near these hearths.
The horseshoe-shaped mobile shrines with ram protomes, threelegged
pedestals, phallus-shaped pendant figures were also of religious
nature.
One of the inseparable spheres of religious practice was the
burial ritual. Outside the settlements, special burial grounds were
formed in their immediate vicinity. Both individual tombs with
earthen and tiled walls, as well as wide ancestral tombs with stone
walls were revealed, in which the deceased (Joghaz) of the upper-class family were sequentially buried. In the final stage of this
civilization, collective burials were performed, in which human
sacrifices were also performed. These tombs contain numerous
artifacts, that indications of social stratification: gold and silver
jewelry, bronze tools and weapons, imported valuable items.
Early city-type settlements, temples, fortified walls, advanced
craftsmanship-metallurgy, stonework/masonry, pottery,
textile production, wine and beer production, transport, unified
weight system, ritually formed system, elite tombs and other features
testify the high level of development of the Shengavit civilization.




Armenia in the Middle Bronze Age (2400/2300-1500 BC)



At the depth of the Shengavit civilization, a new, early burial mound
culture was formed, which yet preserved separate pottery traditions. In
the middle of the 3rd millennium BC major changes took place in the socio-
cultural, as well as political life of Armenia. The Shengavit social-cultural
wholeness, that was experiencing a deep economic crisis, finally collapsed.
Indo-European tribes settled in the central and northern regions of
the Armenian Highland. As a result of the fusion of newcomers and locals,
archaeological cultures of early burial mounds, Treghk-Vanadzor, Karmir
Berd, Sevan-Artsakh and Karmir Vank were formed. Acting as a group of
related cultures, they occupied almost the entire territory of the Armenian
Highland-the range of the basins of Urmia, Vana and Sevan lakes and the
neighbouring areas, up to the Great Caucasus mountain range. In contrast
to the Shengavit civilization, the economy of the Middle Bronze Age was
dominated by animal husbandry. This is witnessed not only by the osteological
materials, but also by the abundance of burial grounds, which
make up 70% of the monuments known to us. The earliest samples of
domestic horse sacrifice are attested (Nerkin Naver, 23rd-21st centuries
BC).
Trophy also played an important role in the economy of the Middle
Bronze Age. After successful wars, huge funds were accumulated in the
hands of the leader-kings and councils, which became the basis for the
flourishing of art and crafts. In the “Palace” workshops, skilled craftsmen
prepared exceptional pieces of art. Armenia was involved in the international
trade network, the evidence of which is the similarity of luxury items,
weapons, and precious metalware with archaeological artifacts found in the
center of Southwest Asia.
In architectural forms dominant were the construtions with rectangular
floorplan (Yerkaruk Blur, Metsamor, Ashtarak fort). Immense burial
mounds appeared intended for individual burials, consisting of a stone armour,
with cromlech lined around its perimeter and with earthen, rockhewn
or stone-covered burial cells with rectangular, sometimes rounded
corners, dug in the central part. The deceased were laid in the grave with
their limbs bent, men lying on their right, women on their left. Deceased
members of the elite were cremated. This ritual, as in the Hittite kingdom,
was the monopoly of the council of elders and priests. The diameter of
royal tombs reached 50 m, with depth of 7 m and with the area of the tomb
halls of 150 square meters.
In the Middle Bronze Age, the cremation ritual specific to the elite of
Armenia, the huge sizes of tombs, the luxurious as well as gold and silver
dishes, imported items, human sacrifices matched with the Hittite and Mesopotamian royal tombs. Such tombs were excavated in Treghk, Martkopi, Alazani
Valley, Javahkq, Aruch, Mayisyan, Karashamb, Vanadzor, Nerkin Naver, Gorayk and
elsewhere.
Exceptional is the Zorats karer (Karahunj) monument near the city of Sisian. The
stone path of circular and straight lined menhirs (upright standing stones) stretches for
hundreds of meters. Some scientists believe, that it was once an ancient observatory.
The cultural heritage of the Middle Bronze Age of Armenia, the exquisite masterpieces
of applied art and artistic metalwork (toreutics) are among the brightest pages
of the centuries-old creativity of the Armenian people, when the tribal creative spirit
bursts with indescribable power, creating masterpieces of art inspired with barbaric
grandeur (gold cups covered with precious stones, and doule-layers of Treghk, with
heraldicly positioned lion sculptures of Vanadzor, silver, episodic decorated cups of
Karashamb and Koruktash with ancient sayings of Indo-European mythology depicted
son them). There was a great variety of jewels and luxury items: dressers, necklaces,
beads, cufflinks, mirrors and others, made of gold, silver, bronze, semi-precious stones (cornelion, jasper, jet stone, onyx, obsidian,
amethyst, etc.), multicolor glasses and
tinglazed pottery.
In the applied art, noteworthy was the multicolor
and single-color pottery, the ornamentation
of which almost resembled to painting,
with its play of colors and expressiveness (Nerkin
Naver, Treghq, Getashen, Elar, Aparan,
Aruch, etc.). Vessels with black polished, relief
zones and dotted decorations are also highly
valuable artistic pieces, which together with
colorful pottery formed the festive tableware.




Armenia in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages (1500-900 BC)


As a result of the evolutionary development of the Middle
Bronze Age, the unified culture of the Late Bronze Age was formed
in Armenia. It was characterized with the wide spread of cities, fortifications,
monumental architecture, with the formation of the class
of kings and princes at the highest level of society, of the aristocracy
surrounding them and the class of professional warriors, as
well as with the appearance of the first samples of the earliest written
monuments (Verin Naver, Shamiram, Utik). In the Armenian
Highland and also in Kakheti (Georgia), i.e., in the whole area of
Middle Bronze Age, that includes colored pottery, a uniform culture
of the Late Bronze Age was established-weapons, jewelries,
tools and household items were copied with exceptional similarity
in monuments placed hundreds of kilometers far. Particularly powerful
centers were formed in Aragatsotn (Verin Naver, Metsamor
Oshakan, Ujan, Shamiram), in Sevan Lake Basin (Lchashen), in Artsakh (Arajadzor), in Utik (Khanlar), in Gugark (Vanadzor, Lori
Berd), in Shirak (Horom, Harich, Artik), in Upper Armenia (Bardzr
Hayk) and elsewhere. As a result of the merger of the tribes and
tribal unions of the Armenian Highland, in which dominant was
the Indo-European ethnic element, the first powerful state formations
were created: Etiuni, Hayasa, Mitani, Armenia-Shubria, etc.
In this period, ends the first stage of formation of the Armenian
civilization.
Armenia is one of those regions of the ancient world, where
the principles of fortifications originated and were formated. The
principle of building strong fortified wall chains in order to protect
the settlements from external danger and to control the approach
routes, was launched in Armenia in the Early Bronze Age, was
developed in the Middle Bronze Age (Ashtarak Fortress), but was
finally formed and widely used in the Late Bronze Age, laying
the foundation for the culture of the so-called “Cyclopean” castles
or forts, highly typical to the Armenian culture. They had 3-7
rows of surrounding fortified walls and occupied an area of 40-60
hetares, and in some separate cases- more than 100 hectares of
area (Motkan Fortress). Almost the entire territory of the Armenian
Highland was densely covered with forts (several hundred
of forts are known), which were built in places difficult to access:
on the high slopes of mountains, on the conical tops of hills, on
promontories surrounded on three sides by steep gorges. Among
the characteristic features of the forts were the maximum use of
the opportunities of its relief, the strengthening of walls and entrances
with rectangular masonry, the establishment of seven rows
of walls on the road leading to the fort. The preserved height of the
walls reaches to 7 m (Tghit), the thickness is 3–6 m (Motkan fort,
Tsitsernakaberd, etc.).
Temple complexes were excavated in Dvin, Metsamor
and Gegharot. In the sanctuaries of Dvin, terracotta rectangular
board-altars, decorated with animals and geometric relief figures,
were discovered, in front of which unquenchable fire was lit. The
human-shaped sculptures of various sizes in the adoration position
uncovered in Metsamor Cathedral, symbolized the trinity of father,
mother and son.
The tombs of the elite had stone-earthen tombs up to 50 m in
diameter and 2 m in height, in the central part of which were half
ground-dug tomb halls, with a rectangular floorplan, built of tufa
and basalt giant stones with flattened fronts. They had both straight
lined walls and log-slab comlex roofs (Lchashen, Verin Naver,
Zorats Karer), as well as walls gradually narrowing upwards and
structures covered with one-piece slabs (Verin Naver, Shamiram). The walls of the tombhalls were covered with carpets, rugs and
expensive animal furs. Specially brought river stones were used
to form the cromlechs, from which started the tomb entrances,
that sloped down to the tomb hall (dramos). The sizes of the
tombs, the richness and multi-functionality of the funerary offerings
(weapons, tools, symbols of power), ritual objects, jewelries,
household and cult objects, chariots, carts and catafalques,
human, bird, domestic and wild animal, including lion (Verin
Naver) large number sacrifices testify the burials of kings and
supreme priests at this sites.
In the royal tomb (16th-15th centuries BC), excavated in Verin
Naver, in 2012, were found items imported from Babylon
(glazed clay beads), Persian Gulf (sea snails from the Persian
Gulf), China (jade), medallions (bitum) with ingraved portraits
of leader-kings covered with gold plate and cufflinks with images
of argali and trees of life. These items have strong resemblance
to the samples of Middle Elamite art.
Unique is the round bronze sculpture belonging to the middle
of the II millennium BC. The realism, that was characteristic
of the ancient art of Armenia of this era reached to an admirable
expressiveness. Metal-plastic samples were made of melted
bronze with high fluidity, in wax molds, which implied that each
of them was unique and unrepeatable. Bronze sculpture is characterized
with a highly specific thematic repertoire. It represents
anthropomorphic deities, mythological heroes, worshiped animals
(bull, goat, deer) and birds (golden eagle, dove, etc.). These
statues were attached to crosiers, coats of arms (shtandart) and
chariots. Noteworthy are the group of sculptures with mythological
plots, the compositions of which are characterized with
rhythmic balance. Notable are the scale models of two-wheeled
chariots, in which the position of the torsos of the warriors give
us the sense of the galloping style of the chariots.
The sculpture of a bearded soldier is unique in the metalwork
of Lori Fortress. The sculpture of this hero with swastikas
(Armenian eternity sign) on his thighs, broad-shoulder, narrow-
back and powerful thighs seemed to foreshow the foundations
of masculine beauty, that later became canonical in Greek
art. The sculpture of a hero in Shirakavan, with chained fearsome
wild beast (lion) depicts the characters of the hero and the
beast endowed with tremendous strength. Most likely, it is the
prototype of the lion-shaped Mher - one of the favorite heroes of
the Armenian epic poetry.
In the Early Iron Age, metalwork was of smaller size. There
were found miniatures of battle idols, figurines of women and men, as well as of dogs, goats, horses, deer and birds, which characterize
the piculiarities of the heroes: strength, elegance, fierce
nature, athletic figure, etc. (Paravakar, Ayrum, Artsvakar).
A special field of art is the iconography of bronze belts.
Among the hundreds of belts found in Armenia, the examples
of Lchashen, Stepanavan and Astgh hill are the most noticeable
ones. Broad bronze plates depict (with carvings) sacred conception,
mythological and domestic, battle and hunting scenes. The
central plot is surrounded by two-three rows of edgeband with
fir-shape or “running” gyre decorations. Carved figures have solemn-
static or pronounced plastic mobility. Along with realistic
figures, there are also numerous figures of people and animals of
fantastic shape. Depictions of deer, goat, bird, celestial luminary,
lion-faced men and horned horses (unicorns) were particularly
widespread. The chariot battle scenes give an idea of the structure
of the Armenian armed forces of that period, which consisted of
heavily weaponed infantry, armed with long spears and rectangular,
large shields, of light cavalry, vanguard and rearguard regiments.
The personal seals of the kings and rulers of Mesopotamia
found in the tombs of the elite (Metsamor) testify, that the Armenian
armies fought successful battles in the territory of the most
powerful states, bringing rich booty from there.




Armenia in the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods


At the beginning of the 6th century BC, in the Middle East,
the kingdoms of new Assyria, Babylon, Egypt and Van were
destroyed. The vast polity called Urartu or Armina, (mentioned
in the Behistun trilingual inscription of Darius the Great) which
stretched from Anti-Taurus mountains to the Caspian Sea, from
Mesopotamia to the banks of the Kur River, belonged to the
Armenian Yervandean (Orontid) dinasty. Armenia is mentioned
in the works of the 6th century Greek historian Hecataeus of
Miletus, Herodotus, Xenophon, Polybius, Strabo and of others.
Armenia became the full political and cultural heir of the
Kingdom of Van. After 5 bloody battles, Armenia got under the
control of Achaemenid Persian Empire. Darius the Great formed
the 13th and 18th satrapies in Armenia. The Royal road built by
Darius the Great passed though Armenia and connected Persia
with the Mediterranean. The Yervandean (Orontid) kings had an
important role in Achaemenid Persia and had a semi-independent
status.
In Yervandean Armenia, several spheres flourish, among
them the artistic metalwork, the best examples of which were found near the Erebuni fortress, in Armavir, Van, Yerznka and
elsewhere, as well as the glyptic (hardstone carving) and the so-called apadana architecture (Erebuni).
In the decisive Battle of Gaugamela (331) by Alexander the
Great's eastern campaign, the Armenian troops fighting on the
right wing of Darius III army, severely pressured the Macedonians.
After the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire and the establishment
of the Seleucid Empire, Armenia was gradually included
in the Hellenistic civilization. Armenia was independent
during the time of Alexander and his Diadochi.
In 201, another Yervandean dinasty member, Artashes
I (201-163 BC), took the throne from Yervand, the king of
the Greater Armenia. In 189 BC, Artashes declared Armenia
as an independent country and reunited the borders
of Yervandean Armenia, bringing back the lost provinces.
In Strabo's Geography it is testified, that at that
time everyone in Armenia spoke Armenian. Aramaic
was also used by the elite, in which the boundary stones
of Artashes I are recorded. During the reign of the Artaxiad
dynasty, urban development flourished in Armenia.
Along with the ancient cities of Van, Armavir, Erebuni, the
Armenian kings founded dozens of other cities, which they
named after themselves: Samosat, Arsamea, Arshamashat,
Yervandashat, Tigranakert and Artashat. The latter, according
to Plutarch's testimony, was built by the advice of the Carthage
military commander Hannibal. These were some of the populous
and prosperous cities on the Silk Road, an international trade
route that stretched from China and India to the Mediterranean,
attested by a number of Greco-Roman historians. Local, eastern
and western cultures were reflected in them, as attested by the
results of the excavations. Various crafts flourished. Armenia imported
goods and exported agricultural and handicraft products,
minerals, as attested by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder. The
masters of Armenia were especially skilled in artistic metalwork.
This is evidenced by the highly artistic jewelry found in Van, Armavir,
Artashat, and Lori fortress: bracelets ending with animal
heads, brooches, precious metal dishes. In particular, noteworthy
are the shaped handles of vessels and silver drinking vessel.
The largest of the states of Hellenistic Armenia was Mets
Hayk (Kingdom of Armenia), which reached the peak of its power
under the ruler of the East, king of kings Tigran the Great (95-
56 AD). He defeated the Parthians and removed the armies of the
Roman Empire from the banks of the Euphrates, as well as regulated transit trade between East and West. One of its capitals, Tigranakert,
was built according to a pre-planned project - in the upper basin of Tigris.
Powerful fortresses were built, particularly Garni, mentioned by the Roman
historian Tacitus. Hellenistic Armenia was included in the political, economic
and cultural processes of the Old World. For the purpose of meeting the
requirements of monetary circulation, Armenia created it own drams. The Armenian
culture was a synthesis of Hellenistic and Ancient Eastern cultures,
with a very traditional content. It became one of the sources of culture in the
Christian East.
The Artashesid dynasty was replaced in Armenia by the Arshakunis (66
AD). Significant changes in cultural and political life were observed from
this period on. Armenian cities, particularly Artashat, became key centers of
international trade. The water supply of urban settlements was improved. Armenia's
trade and economic ties extended to Western Europe, Central Asia,
the Crimean Peninsula and Egypt. In the field of pottery, the growth of qualitative
features became noticeable. Glassmaking and the art of terracotta figurines
became widely popular. The walls of temples, palaces and rich houses
were decorated with multi-colored plaster, murals, gypsum cornice, roofs
were covered with tiles.
From the middle of the 3rd century, both Sasanian Persian Empire and
Roman influences became noticeable in Armenia (Garni Temple, the Mosaic
of Garni Temple), but Hellenistic traditions prevailed. Their influence was
particularly evident in the art of Agtsk terracotta basreliefs, which featured
naturalistic sculptures of lions chasing the deer, tigers chasing the rams, camel
eating thistle, simurgh bird- a mythical bird with eagle legs and peacock's
head and tail standing in front of the tree of life.
In 301, after adopting Christianity as the state religion, under the influence
of a new ideology, a new culture is formed in Armenia.




See also


Archaeology of Armenia
History of Armenia
Prehistoric Armenia




References

Kata Kunci Pencarian:

• Turki
• Kekaisaran Persia
• Tembok Yerusalem
• Kota Tua Yerusalem
• Matenadaran
• Yerusalem
• Vila Romana del Casale
• Peradaban Mesopotamia
• Daftar Situs Warisan Dunia di Eropa
• Italia
• Archaeological heritage of Armenia
• List of World Heritage Sites in Armenia
• Vagharshapat
• Ani
• Armenia
• Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)
• Zvartnots Cathedral
• United Armenia
• Godedzor
• Tourism in Armenia