• Source: Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate

Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, abbreviated Fru-2,6-P2, is a metabolite that allosterically affects the activity of the enzymes phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1) and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase-1) to regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Fru-2,6-P2 itself is synthesized and broken down in either direction by the integrated bifunctional enzyme phosphofructokinase 2 (PFK-2/FBPase-2), which also contains a phosphatase domain and is also known as fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase. Whether the kinase and phosphatase domains of PFK-2/FBPase-2 are active or inactive depends on the phosphorylation state of the enzyme.
Fructose-6-p-phosphate is phosphorylated by the kinase domain of PFK-2/FBPase-2 to Fru-2,6-P2 when PFK-2/FBPase-2 is active in a dephosphorylated state. This dephosphorylated state is favored by high levels of insulin, which activates the phosphatase domain.
The synthesis of Fru-2,6-P2 is performed through a bifunctional enzyme containing both PFK-2 and FBPase-2, which is dephosphorylated, allowing the PFK-2 portion to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate using ATP. The breakdown of Fru-2,6-P2 is catalyzed by the phosphorylation of the bifunctional enzyme, which allows FBPase-2 to dephosphorylate fructose 2,6-bisphosphate to produce fructose 6-phosphate and Pi.




Effects on glucose metabolism


Fru-2,6-P2 strongly activates glucose breakdown in glycolysis through allosteric modulation (activation) of phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1). Elevated expression of Fru-2,6-P2 levels in the liver allosterically activates phosphofructokinase 1 by increasing the enzyme’s affinity for fructose 6-phosphate, while decreasing its affinity for inhibitory ATP and citrate. At physiological concentration, PFK-1 is almost completely inactive, but interaction with Fru-2,6-P2 activates the enzyme to stimulate glycolysis and enhance breakdown of glucose.
Cellular stress as a result of oncogenesis or DNA damage among others, activates certain genes by the tumor suppressor p53. One such gene encodes TP53-inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR); an enzyme that inhibits glycolysis, monitors the cellular levels of reactive oxygen species, and protects cells from apoptosis. The structure of TIGAR is shown to be nearly identical to FBPase-2 on the bifunctional enzyme. TIGAR removes the allosteric effector, Fru-2,6-P2., therefore the activator does not enhance the affinity of the enzyme (PFK1) for its substrate (fructose 6-phosphate). Furthermore, TIGAR also removes the glycolytic intermediate fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, the product of the PFK catalyzed third reaction of glycolysis and the substrate for the following aldolase fourth reaction of glycolysis.




Production regulation


The concentration of Fru-2,6-P2 in cells is controlled through regulation of the synthesis and breakdown by PFK-2/FBPase-2. The primary regulators of this are the hormones insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine which affect the enzyme through phosphorylation/dephosphorylation reactions.
Activation of the glucagon receptor (primarily coupled to Gs) triggers production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (PKA, or cAMP-dependent protein kinase). PKA phosphorylates the PFK-2/FBPase-2 enzyme at an NH2-terminal Ser residue with ATP to activate the FBPase-2 activity and inhibit the PFK-2 activity of the enzyme, thus reducing levels of Fru-2,6-P2 in the cell. With decreasing amounts of Fru-2,6-P2, glycolysis becomes inhibited while gluconeogenesis is activated.
Insulin triggers the opposite response by activating protein phosphatases that dephosphorylate PFK-2, thereby inhibiting the FBPase-2 domain. With additional Fru-2,6-P2 present, activation of PFK-1 occurs to stimulate glycolysis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis. As of 2023, which specific phosphatases are involved in mediating insulin's downstream effect specifically on PFK-2 are currently unclear; protein phosphatase 1 is known to be involved in mediating insulin's downstream effect of dephosphorylating glycogen synthase, thereby activating it.




Regulation of sucrose production


Fru-2,6-P2 plays an important role in the regulation of triose phosphates, the end products of the Calvin Cycle. In the Calvin Cycle, 5/6th of triose phosphates are recycled to make ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate. The remaining 1/6 of triose phosphate can be converted into sucrose or stored as starch. Fru-2,6-P2 inhibits production of fructose 6-phosphate, a necessary element for sucrose synthesis. When the rate of photosynthesis in the light reactions is high, triose phosphates are constantly produced and the production of Fru-2,6-P2 is inhibited, thus producing sucrose. Fru-2,6-P2 production is activated when plants are in the dark and photosynthesis and triose phosphates are not produced.




See also


Fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase
Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate




References

Kata Kunci Pencarian:

• Metabolisme
• Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
• Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase
• Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate 6-phosphatase
• Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
• Phosphofructokinase 2
• Phosphofructokinase 1
• Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate 2-phosphatase
• Bisphosphate
• Tumor hypoxia
• PFP (enzyme)