• Source: Sambas Malay

      • Sambas Malay (Sambas Malay: Base Sambas, Jawi: بيس سمبس) is a Malayic language primarily spoken by the Malay people living in Sambas Regency in the northwestern part of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is also widely used in Bengkayang and Singkawang, both of which were formerly part of Sambas Regency before being split in 1999 and 2001 respectively. Sambas Malay is closely related to Sarawak Malay, spoken in the neighboring Malaysian state of Sarawak, particularly in terms of vocabulary. The border between Sambas and Sarawak has fostered a long-standing connection between the Sambas Malay community and the Sarawak Malay community, existing even before the formation of Malaysia and Indonesia. It is also more distantly related to other Malay dialects spoken in West Kalimantan, such as Pontianak Malay, which exhibits significant phonological differences.
      In Sambas, Sambas Malay serves as a language of interaction and culture, not just among the Sambas Malay people but also with other ethnic groups. This means that Sambas Malay is not only a means of communication within the community but also plays a vital role in preserving cultural elements such as traditional ceremonies and folklore. Nevertheless, most Sambas Malays are bilingual, speaking both Sambas Malay and standard Indonesian. On the other hand, other ethnic groups in Sambas, such as the Chinese and Dayak, are also proficient in Sambas Malay alongside their native tongue and Indonesian. The language is also the primary language of the Sultanate of Sambas, an Islamic sultanate historically ruling the region, though it no longer holds any political power today.


      Classification


      Sambas Malay is a Malayic language. Speakers of Malayic languages are spread from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand, to the southernmost part of the Philippines. Malay is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continental Asia. Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarily mutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian. There are many cognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.
      Sambas Malay is closely related to Sarawak Malay, sharing significant lexical similarities. For instance, both dialects use words like kamek for I, pangkong for to hit, and maok for want, among others. Some studies classify Sambas Malay as part of the Coastal Borneo Malay language group, which includes Brunei Malay, Berau Malay, Banjarese, and Kutainese. It is also distantly related to Pontianak Malay and other Malay dialects spoken in other parts of West Kalimantan. However, there are significant differences between Sambas Malay and Pontianak Malay, especially in terms of phonology.


      Geographic distribution and usage


      Sambas Malay is predominantly spoken in the northwestern part of West Kalimantan, particularly in Sambas Regency. It is also spoken in the neighboring Bengkayang Regency and the city of Singkawang, both of which were originally part of Sambas Regency before becoming separate administrative regions. The Malay dialect spoken in Singkawang originates from Sambas Malay, as does its culture. However, it has undergone some blending with Indonesian, so it is no longer entirely Sambas Malay. Nevertheless, in northern Singkawang, many residents still use pure Sambas Malay without any mixture, particularly in the Naram subdistrict, where the community remains closely tied to Malay language and culture. Sambas Malay is also spoken in Telok Melano village and other border villages in Sarawak, Malaysia, near the West Kalimantan border. The speakers in these areas are primarily descendants of Sambas Malays who migrated there. However, the use of Sambas Malay is predominantly confined to older generations, as younger residents are generally more fluent in the Kuching dialect of Sarawak Malay.
      In Malay-populated settlements across Sambas and its surrounding areas, Sambas Malay serves as the primary language for daily communication. For the Sambas Malays, Sambas Malay is used as both a language of social interaction and a cultural language. This means that, in addition to serving as a means of communication among community members, Sambas Malay is also a medium for preserving other cultural aspects, such as traditional performances, ceremonies, and folklore. Most Sambas Malays are bilingual in both Sambas Malay and Indonesian. Code-switching between the two languages is common, especially in settings like markets, where people from diverse ethnic backgrounds are present. In local government offices and schools, Sambas Malay is regarded as a colloquial language and is commonly used in informal settings, while Indonesian is reserved for formal occasions. Sambas Malay also serves as a lingua franca for interethnic communication between Malays and other ethnic groups, such as the Dayak and Chinese communities. Additionally, the Indonesian dialect spoken in Singkawang, Sambas, and the surrounding areas has been significantly influenced by Sambas Malay, particularly in terms of tone and pronunciation.


      Dialects


      The Sambas Malay language encompasses several dialects, notably the 'e' and 'o' dialects. The differences in these dialects primarily lies in the phonology. The Malay spoken in the town of Sambas closely resembles the dialect spoken in Ngabang in Landak Regency, the Dayak Nyaduʼ language, and Pontianak Malay. The dialect in the vicinity of the former Panembahan Sambas Kingdom, the precursor to the Sultanate of Sambas, located in Teluk Keramat District, is thought to have been influenced by both Sambas Malay and Javanese. This connection is linked to the history of Panembahan Sambas, established by a king from the Majapahit Kingdom who fled with his entourage from Java. As a result, Sambas Malay dialects in areas such as Teluk Keramat, Sajad, and Paloh display notable Javanese influences.


      Phonology


      Sambas Malay, like many other regional languages in Indonesia, lacks a standardized phonological system. Nevertheless, many of the phonological system designed for Sambas Malay is loosely based on standard Indonesian orthography, especially the system created by the Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology.


      = Vowels

      =
      Like Indonesian and Standard Malay, Sambas Malay has six vowels. These vowels are /i/, /e/, /ə/, /a/, /u/, and /o/,

      Notes:

      In writing, /e/ and /ə/ are both represented as ⟨e⟩.


      = Consonants

      =
      Sambas Malay has 19 consonants.

      Notes:

      In writing, the following phonemes are represented as thus:
      /ŋ/ is ⟨ng⟩
      /ɲ/ is ⟨ny⟩
      /t͡ʃ/ is ⟨c⟩
      /d͡ʒ/ is ⟨j⟩
      /ʔ/ is ⟨k⟩
      /j/ is ⟨y⟩


      = Diphthongs

      =
      In Sambas Malay, there are three diphthongs: /ai/, /au/, and /oi/, which are pronounced as [ay], [aw], and [oy], respectively. Examples of the usage of these diphthongs are shown below:

      /ai/: pandai 'smart'
      /au/: wau 'kite'
      /oi/: tanggoi 'hat'


      Grammar



      Along with Indonesian, standard Malay, and other Malayic languages, the word order in Sambas Malay is typically subject-verb-object (SVO). While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of Sambas Malay shares many similarities with Indonesian and Standard Malay


      = Affixes

      =
      Affixation, or the process of adding affixes, refers to attaching an affix to a base word, whether it is a simple or complex form, to create a new word. In Sambas Malay, there are several types of affixation: prefixation, suffixation, and circumfixation.


      Prefixes


      Examples of prefixes in Sambas Malay are be-, me-, pe-, di-, ke-, ti-, and si-.
      The prefix be- has two allomorphs: bel- or ber-. In Sambas Malay, the prefix be- functions to form verbs. As a verb-forming prefix, it conveys various meanings, such as expressing possession, performing an action, indicating usage, producing or emitting something, denoting reciprocity, calling or naming, indicating a collective, describing a state or condition, marking intransitivity, and expressing reflexive actions. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      be- + bini 'wife' → bebini 'to have a wife'
      be- + kelai 'quarrel (noun)' → bekelai 'to quarrel'
      be- + buah 'fruit' → bebuah 'to bear fruit'
      be- + dua 'two' → bedua 'two of us/them'
      The prefix me- generally exhibits variation, with the forms [m-], [n-], or it may even disappear entirely, leaving only [n-], which is homorganic with the initial phoneme of the root word. The prefix me- remains unchanged when attached to words beginning with the phonemes /r/ and /i/. The root morpheme me- has the allomorphs [me-, m-, n-, ny-, ng-], each used under specific conditions. The allomorph [m-] appears when the root word starts with the phonemes /b/ or /p/, with /p/ being softened. The allomorph [n-] is used when the root word begins with the phonemes /d/, /e/, or /t/, with /t/ being softened. The allomorph [ny-] is used when the root word starts with the phoneme /s/, which is softened in the process. The allomorph [ng-] is employed when the root word starts with the phoneme /g/, a vowel, or /k/, with the phoneme /k/ being softened. In the Sambas Malay language, the prefix me- and its variations function to form verbs, both transitive and intransitive. The meanings conveyed by the me- prefix include: performing an action (or movement), making or producing something, moving towards a direction, becoming or acting in a way described by the root word, resembling what is described in the root word, commemorating a particular event, performing an action as described in the root word, doing work with an instrument or tool mentioned in the root word, and creating or producing something as described in the root word. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      me- + langkah 'step (noun)' → melangkah 'to step'
      me- + laot 'sea' → melaot 'to go to the sea'
      me- + raje 'king' → meraje 'to act like a king'
      me- + puteh 'white' → muteh 'to become white'
      The prefix pe- has the allomorphs [pem-, pen-, peny-, peng-]. The primary function of the pe- prefix is to form nouns. The meanings conveyed by this prefix include: someone who performs or habitually performs an action, a tool or instrument used to carry out an action, someone who frequently or habitually engages in an activity, someone or something possessing the qualities described by the root word, and someone or something that causes or creates a particular outcome. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      pe- + minom 'to drink' → peminom 'drinker'
      pe- + takut 'scared' → penakut 'timid person'
      pe- + rusak 'broken' → perusak 'destroyer'
      pe- + rokok 'cigarette' → perokok 'smoker'
      In the Sambas Malay language, the prefix di- has no allomorphs and functions to form passive verbs. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      di- + sapu 'broom' → disapu 'to be swept'
      di- + picik 'massage' → dipicik 'to be massaged'
      di- + tutoh 'cut' → ditutoh 'to be cut'
      di- + pangkong 'hit' → dipangkong 'to be hit'
      The prefix ke- in Sambas Malay has no allomorphs. It serves to form nouns with meanings such as "the one being..." and numerals that indicate order or grouping. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      ke- + tua 'old' →ketua 'leader'
      ke- + limmak 'five' → kelimmak 'fifth'
      ke- + duak 'two' → keduak 'second'
      ke- + tigge 'three' → ketigge 'third'
      The prefix ti- in Sambas Malay has no allomorphs. It attaches primarily to verb roots and occasionally to nouns. In forming new words, the prefix ti- conveys meanings such as: an action that has been completed, an action that continues, an action occurring unintentionally, the ability to do something ("can be..."), or an action done repeatedly or to an intense degree. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      ti- + ikat 'to tie' → tiikat 'to get tied'
      ti- + katup 'to close' → tikatup 'to get closed'
      ti- + apong 'float' → tiapong 'is floating'
      ti- + gantong 'hang' → tigantong 'is hanging'
      The prefix si- in Sambas Malay remains unchanged, except when combined with the word ekok 'tail', where the /i/ in si- is omitted, resulting in sekok '(measuring word for animal)'. In Sambas Malay, the prefix si- functions as a numeral classifier. The prefix si- in Sambas Malay carries several meanings: indicating "something," expressing "togetherness," denoting "entirety," referring to "a single time (simultaneously)," signifying "similarity or resemblance," and representing "a certain amount or quantity." When combined with reduplication of the root word and the addition of ng- or nye-, it conveys the meaning of "the most." Examples of its usage are shown below:

      si- + titik 'drop' → sititik 'a drop'
      si- + bangse 'nation' → sibangse 'the same nation'
      si- + kampong 'village' → sikampong 'the whole village'
      si- + dapat 'obtain' → sidapatnye 'as much as you can obtain'


      Suffixes


      The suffixes present in Sambas Malay are -an, -ek and -kan.
      The suffix -an in Sambas Malay does not undergo any changes in form and functions primarily to form nouns. It carries various meanings, such as indicating a place, a tool, or a manner or method. Additionally, it can denote the result or outcome of an action or refer to something "being" or "having been" as described in the root word. The suffix also conveys notions of entirety or collectiveness, resemblance, and the possession of a quality mentioned in the root word. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      pengkal 'to turn' + -an → pengkalan 'turn (noun)'
      main 'to play' + -an → mainan 'toys'
      kurong 'to cage' + -an → kurongan 'cage (noun)'
      polah 'to create' + -an → polahan 'creation'
      In Sambas Malay, the suffix -ek functions to form verbs. It has several meanings, including indicating a place or direction where the object of the sentence signifies a location or target. It also denotes giving or causing something, implying that an action leads to a result. Additionally, it can suggest that an activity is repetitive or involves multiple actors. Lastly, the suffix -ek may also convey the idea of removing or discarding what is mentioned in the root word. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      tanya 'to ask' + -ek → nanyaek 'to ask someone'
      sakit 'sick' + -ek → nyakittek 'to hurt someone'
      tinju 'punch (noun)' + -ek → ninjuek 'to punch something'
      bulu 'feather + -ek → mbuluek 'to remove feather from something'
      The suffix -kan does not undergo any changes. In Sambas Malay, the suffix -kan serves to form verbs. In certain words, the suffix -kan has meanings similar to the suffix -ek, such as creating, causing something, or making something. It can also indicate using something as a tool, or that an action is done for someone else. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      kacik 'small' + -kan → kacikkan 'to make something smaller'
      tutop 'close' + -kan → tutopkan 'to close something'
      balik 'return' + -kan → mbalikan 'to return something'
      pinjam 'borrow' + -kan → minjamkan 'to borrow something'


      Circumfixes


      In Sambas Malay there are only two circumfixes: pe-...-an and ke-...-an.
      The element pe- in the circumfix pe-...-an varies according to the variation of the prefix, which includes [pem-, pen-, peny-, peng-]. In Sambas Malay, the circumfix pe-...-an is not productive (since the pe- element is omitted) and functions to form nouns. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      pe- + carek 'to find' + -an → pencarekan 'findings'
      pe- + makam 'grave' + -an → pemakaman 'funeral'
      pe- + ngaji 'to read the Quran' + -an → pengajian 'Quran reading session'
      pe- + curi 'to steal' + -an → pencurian 'theft'
      In Sambas Malay, the circumfix ke-...-an does not undergo any morphological changes. This circumfix functions to form nouns and carries various meanings. It can express a state or condition, indicate being affected by or experiencing something, denote an action performed unintentionally, or signify an excessive degree of something. When combined with reduplication, it conveys a sense of slightness or resemblance. Examples of its usage are shown below:

      ke- + ujan 'rain' + -an → keujanan 'caught in the rain'
      ke- + susah 'difficult' + -an → kesusahan 'difficulty'
      ke- + tinggal 'leave' + -an → ketinggalan 'being left behind'
      ke- + paik 'bitter' + -an → kepaikan 'bitterness'


      = Reduplication

      =
      In Sambas Malay, reduplication is categorized into three types: total reduplication, affixed reduplication, and pseudo-reduplication. Total reduplication involves the complete repetition of the root word without any addition of affixes or alteration in form. Affixed reduplication occurs when the root word is repeated along with the addition of affixes, which may appear at the beginning, middle, or end of the word. This type is further divided into full and partial reduplication. In full reduplication, the entire word, including its affixes, is repeated. In contrast, partial reduplication repeats only the root word, excluding the affix. Lastly, pseudo-reduplication refers to the repetition of words that lack a true root word or whose meaning changes when not repeated, often serving no grammatical function.
      The meaning of reduplication becomes clearer when the repeated forms are used in sentences. Typically, reduplication conveys various nuances, such as indicating plurality, expressing actions that occur repeatedly, denoting reciprocity or mutual interaction, emphasizing intensity, signifying sincerity or seriousness, describing conditions or times (e.g., "even though"), and highlighting the abundance of entities possessing a certain quality.
      Examples of reduplications in a sentence are:

      ayam-ayam dah bekukok 'the chickens have already crowed'
      abang natak-natak tali 'brother is cutting the rope into pieces'
      kamek singantar-ngantaran makanan 'we deliver food to each other'
      taroh lading tingi-tingi 'store the knife in a very high place'
      die bejalan palan-palan 'he's walking really slow'
      malam-malam usah betataw 'don't wander late at night'
      dukok itok manis-manis 'those langsats are sweet'


      = Nouns

      =
      The classification of nouns in Sambas Malay is determined through an assessment of word forms and phraseological structures. Nouns can be formed by attaching prefixes, suffixes, or circumfixes to root words derived from adjectives or verbs. For example:

      main 'to play' → pemain 'player'
      singgah 'to stop' → persinggahan 'stopping place'
      kuatt 'strong' → kekuattan 'strength'
      jujur 'honest' → kejujuran 'honesty'
      Basic nouns that do not contain affixes can be identified through their use in specific phrases. For example:

      biyak nang ketet iye adikku 'that short child is my brother'
      buah naq muddoh ndakan nyaman 'overripe fruit is not tasty'
      dare nang ciramut iye tunan Amat 'that beautiful girl is Amat's girlfriend'
      die peraih nang rajing 'he is a diligent traveling merchant'
      By attaching affixations, nouns can also be converted to verbs. For example:

      rumput 'grass' → merumput 'to find grass'
      kullik 'skin' → dikulliki 'to be skinned'
      gambar 'picture' → begambar 'to take a picture'
      cat 'paint' → ngecat 'to paint'


      = Verbs

      =
      From a semantic perspective, verbs in Sambas Malay indicate actions or behaviors. Morphologically, verbs in Sambas Malay can be formed by combining root words with affixes. For example:

      tabok 'slap' → ditabok 'to get slapped'
      garam 'salt' → garammek 'to add salt'
      marah 'angry' → dimaraek 'to get scolded'
      tajam 'sharp' → ditajammek 'to sharpen'
      Basic verbs that do not contain affixes can be identified through their use in specific phrases or sentences. For example:

      ayahnye dah mati 'his father is already dead'
      ummak gek dudok 'mother is sitting down'
      adek tidok dangan nyanyak 'little brother is sleeping peacefully'
      nek wan nyuroh kamek sembahyang 'grandma told us to pray'
      By using affixes, a verb can be changed into another type of word such as a noun. For example:

      rabus 'to boil' → rabusan 'boiled stuff'
      jantok 'to pick' → jantokan 'picked stuff'
      tanam 'to plant' → tanaman 'plants'
      cium 'to kiss' → ciuman 'kiss (noun)'


      = Adjectives

      =
      Semantically, adjectives in Sambas Malay are words that describe nouns, providing information about their qualities, states, or specific characteristics. Most adjectives in Sambas Malay are in the form of free morphemes (simple forms). For example:

      garam masing 'salty salt'
      tambe itok paik 'that medicine is bitter'
      kain itok lallam 'that cloth is very wet'
      ruangnye bassar agi' luas 'the room is big and wide'
      Structurally, adjectives in Sambas Malay also include words that can take the form of si- + reduplication of the root word + -ng (or nye). For example:

      mahal 'expensive' → simahal-mahalnye 'as expensive as'
      masing 'salty' → simasing-masingnye 'as salty as'
      basak 'wet' → sibasak-basaknye 'as wet as'
      bosan 'boring' → sibosan-bosannye 'as boring as'
      In Sambas Malay sentences, adjectives can be intensified using inyan 'very' or paling 'most'. For example:

      tinggi inyan badannye 'his body is very tall'
      lallam inyan silawarku 'my pants is very wet'
      motornye mahal inyan 'that motorcycle is very expensive'
      die palinq takut ndaqar kesah dutate gunong sinujoh 'he was most afraid of hearing the story of the ghost guarding Mount Senujuh'
      In Sambas Malay, some adjectives vary in intensity while still describing the same qualities or characteristics. For example:

      jappok 'slightly wet' → basak 'wet' → lallam 'very wet'
      rabik 'small tear' → rambaw 'gaping tear' → baddaw 'very big tear'
      panning 'a little less sane' → babbang 'crazy' →gille 'insane'
      Adjectives can also be changed into another type of word such as a verb or noun. For example:

      basar 'big' → mbasar 'to become bigger'
      baik 'kind' → kebaikkan 'kindness'
      kecik 'small → ngacik 'to become smaller'
      lapar 'hungry' → kelaparan 'hunger'


      = Numerals

      =
      In Sambas Malay, numerals cannot be identified solely by their form but rather by their semantic characteristics. Numerals in Sambas Malay are words that provide information about the quantity of objects. For example:

      satu 'one (for counting/counting activities)'
      sigek 'one (for fruits)'
      sutek 'one (for other things)'
      sekok 'one (for humans and animals)'
      dua puloh limak 'twenty five (for counting)'
      limak likor 'twenty five (for information)'


      = Function words

      =
      The analysis of function words in Sambas Malay is based on a structural review. Unlike primary word types, function words in Sambas Malay have the following characteristics: they lack lexical meaning, do not serve as the main function in a sentence, do not undergo morphological changes, function to expand sentences and indicate the structural meaning of sentences, and show the relationships within a sentence. For example:

      ayam nang orek ilang 'the chicken with speckled feathers is missing'
      barek die timbakaw gere ditulongnye 'give him tobacco so he can help us'
      umak di pasar 'mother is at the market'
      The bolded parts of the sentence, nan, gerek, and di, indicate relationships of difference, direction, and location. In addition to the function words mentioned above, Sambas Malay also contains several function words that serve as determiners or intensifiers. For example:

      ambeklah 'take it'
      rumah di nang dicarratkannye 'it was the house he had always dreamed of'
      kotordi bajuku kanak lumpor 'my clothes are dirty with mud'
      The determiners lah and di in Sambas Malay have the same meaning, which is equivalent to the particle lah in Indonesian. The difference between the two lies in their usage. The determiner lah is placed after a verb or verb phrase, while di is placed after a noun or adjective.


      = Pronouns

      =
      Pronouns cannot be identified based only on its form because it does not have specific characteristics. It will be discussed based on its function in a sentence. The function of pronouns is to replace a person, indicate possession, and point to or inquire about an object. In Sambas Malay, pronouns include: personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and interrogative pronouns.


      Personal pronouns


      This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used personal pronouns in Sambas Malay.

      In Sambas Malay, the second-person singular pronoun kitak is used by speakers in several villages outside the city of Sambas. The third-person plural pronoun mereke is not productive, and in casual speech, the form die is commonly used for both singular and plural. The third-person singular pronoun biak ye is used exclusively when referring to females, while the pronoun beginde is reserved for referring to royalty.


      Possessive pronouns


      The possessive pronoun is actually a type of personal pronoun that functions to indicate possession in a sentence. As a possessive pronoun, these words take a shortened form. For example:

      silawarku 'my pants'
      silawarmu 'your pants'
      silawarnye 'his/her pants'
      silawarang 'his/her pants'
      There is no difference in meaning between the binding forms -nye and -ng. The same applies to the binding form -ang. The distinction lies in the regional usage of these forms. The -ang binding form is used by speakers in the city of Sambas, while the other binding forms are used by speakers outside the city of Sambas.


      Demonstrative pronouns




      See also



      Sarawak Malay
      Pontianak Malay


      References




      Bibliog'raphy


      Susilo, Firman; Sulistyawati, Rr.; Tarno, Slamet; Ramdani, Deden (1998). Fonologi Bahasa Melayu Sambas [Phonology of the Sambas Malay language] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture. ISBN 979-459-827-5.
      Muzamil, A.R.; Sulissusiawan, Ahadi; Hartono; Yunus, M. (1997). Sistem Sapaan Bahasa Melayu Sambas [Addressing System in the Sambas Malay Language] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture. ISBN 979-459-770-8.
      Effendy, Adam; Hijriah, Amanah (2004). Struktur dan Fungsi Kalimat Bahasa Melayu Sambas [Structure and Function of Sentences in the Sambas Malay Language] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Center, Department of National Education. ISBN 979-685-441-4.
      Trimantomo, Y.; Paimin, Suparmin; Raz., Asniadi M.T.; Umar, Mochtar (1985). Morfosintaksis Bahasa Melayu Sambas [Morphosyntax of the Sambas Malay Language] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture.

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