- Source: Vietnamese morphology
Vietnamese, like many languages in Southeast Asia, is an analytic (and isolating) language.
Vietnamese lacks morphological markings of case, gender, number, and tense (and, as a result, has no finite/nonfinite distinction) and distinguishes them via classifier words instead.
Overview
Vietnamese is often considered to be monosyllabic as its morphemes are considered to be monosyllabic e.g. "tim" meaning "heart". However, some Vietnamese words may consist of one or more syllables, composed of monosyllabic morphemes that form together to create another word. An instance of a compound word "mạnh mẽ" is derived from morphemes mạnh meaning "strong", mẽ meaning "dramatic", fused to create the word mạnh mẽ to mean "powerful".
There is a general tendency for words to have one or two syllables. Words with two syllables are often of Sino-Vietnamese origin. A few words are three or four syllables. A few polysyllabic words are formed from reduplicative derivation.
Additionally, a Vietnamese word may consist of a single morpheme or more than one morpheme. Polymorphemic words are either compound words or words consisting of stems plus affixes or reduplicants.
Most Vietnamese morphemes consist of only one syllable. Polysyllabic morphemes tend to be borrowings from other languages. Examples follow:
Most words are created by either compounding or reduplicative derivation. Affixation is a relatively minor derivational process.
Older styles of Vietnamese writing wrote polysyllabic words with hyphens separating the syllables, as in cào-cào "grasshopper", sinh-vật-học "biology", or cà-phê "coffee". Spelling reform proposals have suggested writing these words without spaces (for example, the above would be càocào, sinhvậthọc, càphê). However, the prevailing practice is to omit hyphens and write all words with a space between each syllable.
Word-formation
= Reduplication
=Reduplication, the process of creating a new word by repeating either a whole word or part of a word, is very productive in Vietnamese (as in other Austro-Asiatic languages), although not all reduplicative patterns remain fully productive.
Function and semantics
Its effect is to sometimes either increase or decrease the intensity of the adjective and is often used as a literary device (like alliteration) in poetry and other compositions, as well as in everyday speech.
Examples of reduplication increasing intensity:
đau → đau điếng: hurt → hurt horribly
mạnh → mạnh mẽ: strong → very strong
rực → rực rỡ: flaring → blazing
Examples of reduplication decreasing intensity:
nhẹ → nhè nhẹ: soft → soft (less)
xinh → xinh xinh: pretty → cute
đỏ → đo đỏ: red → reddish
xanh → xanh xanh: blue/green → bluish/greenish
Form
A type of assimilation known as tonal harmony is involved in Vietnamese reduplication. The six tones are categorized into two registers:
The tones of all reduplicated words are always within the same tonal register (either upper or lower). For example, nhỏ "small" with the hỏi tone when reduplicated appears as nho nhỏ "smallish" with a ngang-toned reduplicant — both syllables are in the upper tonal register.
Vietnamese has several different types of reduplicative patterns including total, partial, initial, final, rhyming, and alliterative patterns involving only reduplicated material or both reduplicated material and affixation.
Reduplicant position. The resulting reduplicants can be either initial (preceding the base) or final (following the base).
Initial reduplication:
bự "big" > bừ bự "quite big" (less) (base: bự, initial reduplicant: bừ-)
khắm "fetid" > khăm khắm "smelly" (base: khắm, initial reduplicant/affix: khăm-)
Final reduplication:
mập "be fat" > mập mạp "be chubby" (base: mập, final reduplicant/affix: -mạp)
khóc "to weep" > khóc lóc "to whimper" (base: khóc, final reduplicant/affix: -lóc)
Total reduplication involves copying the entire word base:
vàng " yellow" > vàng vàng "yellowish"
vui "be joyful" > vui vui "jovial, fun"
nói "to talk" > nói nói "to keep talking and talking"
nghiêng "inclined" > nghiêng nghiêng "slightly slanted"
Partial reduplication involves copying only certain segments of the word base. Partial reduplication typically involves the affixation of non-reduplicated segments.
= Affixation
=Vietnamese has very limited affixation. Only prefixation and suffixation are attested. A few affixes are used along with reduplication. Many affixes are derived from Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and are learned part of the lexicon. Some examples (not an exhaustive list) follow.
= Ablaut
=Vietnamese has the following tonal alternations (or tonal ablaut) which are used grammatically:
(Nguyễn 1997:42-44)
Vietnamese also has other instances of alternations, such as consonant mutations and vowel ablaut. Different regional varieties of Vietnamese may have different types of alternations.
See also
Vietnamese syntax
Vietnamese phonology
Vietnamese language
Notes
Bibliography
Beatty, Mark Stanton. (1990). Vietnamese phrase structure: An X-bar approach. (Master's thesis, University of Texas at Arlington).
Emeneau, M. B. (1951). Studies in Vietnamese (Annamese) grammar. University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 8). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Nguyễn, Phú Phong. (1992). Vietnamese demonstratives revisited. Mon-Khmer Studies, 20, 127-136.
Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn. (1975). Từ loại danh từ trong tiếng Việt hiện đại [The word class of nouns in modern Vietnamese]. Hanoi: Khoa học Xã hội.
Nhàn, Ngô Thanh. (1984). The syllabeme and patterns of word formation in Vietnamese. (Doctoral dissertation, New York University).
Noyer, Rolf. (1998). Vietnamese 'morphology' and the definition of word. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 5 (2), 65-89. ([1])
Phong, Nguyễn Phu. (1976). Le syntagme verbal in vietnamien. Mouton: Le Haye.
Shum, Shu-ying. (1965). A transformational study of Vietnamese syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University).
Thompson, Laurence E. (1963). The problem of the word in Vietnamese. Word, 19 (1), 39-52.
Thompson, Laurence E. (1965). Nuclear models in Vietnamese immediate-constituent analysis. Language, 41 (4), 610-618.
Thompson, Laurence E. (1991). A Vietnamese reference grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. (Original work published 1965).
Uỷ ban Khoa học Xã hội Việt Nam. (1983). Ngữ-pháp tiếng Việt [Vietnamese grammar]. Hanoi: Khoa học Xã hội.
External links
Vietnamese Online Grammar Project
Vietnamese/Cambodian references (Linguist List)
Additional Vietnamese references (Linguist List)